Handbook of Psychology, Volume 5, Personality and Social Psychology

CHAPTER 23

Aggression, Violence, Evil, and Peace

JOSEPHDERIVERA

569

AGGRESSION 569
Social Learning Theories 570
Emotional Bases 571
Biological Perspectives 572
Conflict Theories 573
VIOLENCE AND ITS CONTROL 574
Personal Violence 574
Community Violence 577
Societal Violence 579
Structural Violence 582

EVIL 583

Conceptions of Evil and Its Experience 583

The Ambiguous Role of Religion 584

PEACE 585

Peace Through Strength 586

Peace Through Negotiation 587

Peace Through Justice 588

Peace Through Personal Transformation 589

Developing Cultures of Peace 590

REFERENCES 592

Although aggression, violence, and evil are interrelated, con-
temporary research is so specialized that it is unusual to
group them together, and this chapter is unique in considering
them together with ideas and research on peace. Why place
such disparate fields in the same chapter? In part, it is because
we study aggression and violence in order to avoid the evil
that they occasion and to achieve peace. However, if peace
were simply the absence of violence, it would not require
separate treatment; and if peace were a completely indepen-
dent field, it would be better to make use of separate chapters.
Typically, there are separate chapters on aggression and
prosocial behavior. Here, however, we argue that the achieve-
ment of peace rests on an understanding of aggression, vio-
lence, and evil, yet requires us to go beyond that material to
include not only what is usually conceived as prosocial
behavior but the use of aggression in a struggle with violence
and evil. Hence, we must consider these topics in conjunction
with one another. The attainment of peace requires us to have
an understanding of aggression, and the pitfalls of violence
and evil, as well as the various paths that may lead toward a
peaceful world.
We begin with aggression because although it is often
violent, aspects of aggression may be necessary for the
achievement of peace. We will then sample the voluminous
literature on forms of violence and the ways in which it may
be controlled. Although many of these forms are clearly
related to aggression, Gandhi asserted that the worst form of

violence is poverty. Such violence is masked and occurs be-

cause of unjust economic and political structures. And when

we turn to examine evil we find that a difficult moral judg-

ment is involved. Although most contemporary judgment

considers violence to be evil, much of our striving for peace

and justice involves us in violence that we do not acknowl-

edge as evil. This is one of the facts that requires us to base

any quest for peace (valued as good) on a thorough under-

standing of violence and evil. In this way, we will not be

naive when we finally come to consider how peace may be

attained.

AGGRESSION

Aggression has different meanings that focus our attention on

different aspects of behavior and lead to the creation of dif-

ferent approaches to its understanding. We may distinguish at

least three different definitions:

1.Aggression as behavior intended to hurt an other,whether

this intent is motivated emotionally (as by anger, pain,

frustration, or fear) or instrumentally, as a means to an end

(as in punishing misbehavior or intimidating an other to

attain one’s end.) There are two caveats to this definition.

First, the intention to hurt may be embedded in larger in-

tentions that have quite different meanings. Although the