limitations of an excessively egocentric concept of self and offer a psychology of
non-egocentric modes of being and adaptive, transcendent mind-states (Rubin 1996).
While Western psychotherapy explains early human development and the formation
of psychopathology, Buddhism describes advanced stages of development and
well-being once the basic developmental tasks have been taken care of (Engler 1984;
Rubin 1996).
Lacking the cultural supports found in Asian cultures, and because unresolved
conflicts and developmental deficiencies often hinder the full integration of spiritual
practice into daily life, Westerners might have to engage in psychological work as a
preliminary or supplementary practice to spiritual work (Engler 1984; Engler as cited
in Cohen 2000; Kornfield 1993a, 1993b; Miller 2001; Rubin 1996; Tart and
Deikman 1991; Welwood 2000). Psychotherapy in a spiritual context, practiced by
a meditating therapist, may constitute an intermediate step between conventional
Western psychotherapy and meditation practice for the client (Welwood 2000). For
those who wish to do so, clients and therapists may engage in conventional Western
psychotherapy, alongside meditation practice to enhance their synergystic effects
(Brazier 1995; Engler as cited in Cohen 2000; Cooper 1999; Kornfield 1993a; 1993b;
Miller 2001; Tart and Deikman 1991; Urbanowski and Miller 1996; Watson 1996;
Welwood 2000).
Should therapists teach clients Zen meditation?Supposing the client is interested in and willing to undertake zazen practice, the
question arises, who should teach zazen? Because most schools of Buddhism, and
especially Zen Buddhism, are traditionally non-proselytist, it is likely that those
psychotherapists who engage in zazen as part of their spiritual practice and who
embrace the Zen Buddhist world view might feel reluctant to teach zazen to their
clients (Brazier 2000). This, however, may not necessarily be the case for those
therapists who practice zazen solely to improve their mental and physical health.
Zen meditation can be, and indeed has been, taught as a psychological technique.
Finn and Rubin (1999) pose the question whether in doing so the therapist is merely
offering a useful behavioral or coping strategy or is engaging in spiritual direction to
some degree. In keeping with tradition, Buddhist teachers may not instruct without
having undergone extensive training and testing themselves, and without having
received formal authorization to teach (Kapleau 1989; Welwood 2000). And yet,
procedural packages involving formal zazen instructions for clinical and research
purposes have been put together since the 1970s (Shapiro 1976; 1978; Shapiro and
Zifferblatt 1976). Today, meditation instructions are available to the public in books,
tapes, and interactive media (Finn and Rubin 1999).
Without claiming to be meditation masters, some therapists recommend
meditation-derived awareness-developing techniques for their clients. For example,
Zen-derived listening meditation (the client ‘just listens’ to sounds) and breathing
meditation (the client follows or counts the breath) are recommended for use both
in session and as homework (Wortz 1982). Therapists may prescribe body awareness
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