faces, “which are formed after the celestial beauty” (CTh9.40.2 [315]), or the
interdiction on inscribing convicted persons as gladiators (CTh15.12.1 [325]);
crucifixion as a penalty was abolished (Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus41.4), but
several other cruel forms of punishment were preserved. Celibacy, which had been
sanctioned by Augustan marriage laws, was freed from disadvantages (CTh8.16 [320]).
Besides, respect for the Christian Sunday was enforced (CI3.12.2; CTh2.8.1 [both
321]). Immunity from fiscal burdens was given to clerics (CTh16.2.2 [319]). But,
shortly afterwards, Constantine made clear that people who, being relatives of decu-
rions, were obliged to take over the financial burdens of the city councils must not
become clerics (CTh16.2.3 [320]; cf. 16.2.6 [326]). Churches were allowed to accept
bequests (CTh16.2.4 [321]); the bishops obtained the right to act as judges, when
they were appealed to (the episcopalis audientia; CTh1.27.1 [318]). Many Christian
buildings were erected by the emperor (or his mother Helena) in Rome, Con-
stantinople, and the Holy Land, as the whole of Palestine began to be transformed
into a Christian landscape. In his last days Constantine intervened with the Persian
king (Eus. V. Const.4.9–13), allegedly in order to protect the Christians in the
neighboring empire, perhaps also to find a suitable pretext for a military attack on
Persia.
However, as has been said repeatedly, Christianity had never been a uniform
religion. The success of Christianity within the Roman empire corresponded to
intensified conflicts among Christians, which had a new quality because they were
expressed with an obstinacy unknown before and could win the support of an emperor.
Soon after his victory over Maxentius, Constantine was confronted with the Donatist
dispute, which ultimately resulted from the Diocletianic persecution (for the sources
see Maier 1987). Constantine initially gave his support to Caecilian, Donatus’ coun-
terpart. But after an intervention of the Donatists he agreed to assign the decision
to the bishops. For the first time in history a synod tried to counsel the emperor in
religious matters. In the end, four synods had to be convened, in part with the emperor
present. All of them recognized Caecilian as the legitimate bishop of Carthage. This
created turmoil, most notably in the rural regions of Africa. Constantine’s efforts to
suppress this were in vain, and the emperor resigned about 321, leaving, as he told
the Catholic bishops and laics of Africa, the vengeance to God (Maier 1987, no. 30).
The conflict continued over the next centuries.
After his victory over Licinius, Constantine turned his attention to the Arian conflict.
He tried to mediate between the groups with a letter to Arius and Alexander, which
played down the theological contrasts (Eus. V. Const.2.64 –72), yet without suc-
cess. Shortly afterward he convened a general synod in Nicaea, which was to be regarded
as the first ecumenical synod. The ancient accounts of this synod (most important
Eus. V. Const.3.10 –16) have been idealized in order to prove the holy character of
the assembly, which was to release a new creed that formed the basis for Catholic
and Orthodox doctrines up to today.
Yet the members of the synod were not able to find a solution by themselves.
Constantine intervened by proposing to introduce the word homooúsios(of the same
substance) into the creed in order to describe the relationship between God the father
and God the son. This formula was an apt one to disguise the differences between
Old Religions Transformed 105