cultic imagery discussed above, this group of images is general in its meaning. They
all refer in a non-specific fashion to a desired condition of material abundance and
serene tranquility for the empire and its inhabitants. These two sets of motifs could
be combined as, for instance, on a denariusissue of 44 bcshowing Caesar on the
obverse and, on the reverse, a caduceus crossed with fasces, with a globe, clasped
hands and a sacrificial axe in the corners (fig. 11.24); or again four centuries later
in the 320sad on an issue with the reverse legend BEATA TRANQVILLITAS (“bliss-
ful tranquility”) with the type of a globe resting on an altar (fig. 11.25). The implicit
meaning of both designs is that there is an intimate connection between sacrifice,
as represented by the axe and the altar on these types, and the longed-for state of
universal harmony signified by the caduceus, the clasped hands, and the globes; and
that the liberal performance of the former is a prerequisite for achieving the latter.
A similar meaning must lie behind the puzzling scenes of sacrificing gods mentioned
above, which make the same point by paradoxically ascribing the human act of sacrifice
to its divine benefactors, who are in fact its recipients.Gods, Personifications, and the Emperor
From the republic through to late antiquity, Roman coins continually depict the major
divinities of the Roman state. Together, gods and personifications made up 84 per-
cent of denariusreverse types on coins in circulation betweenad 69 and 235 (Noreña
2001: 155). However, there is little evidence of system in the selection of which
individual gods to depict, and the occurrence or absence of different divine figures
at different times may at first sight seem fairly arbitrary, as may the relationship of
the aspects or titles of the gods shown to those that were prominent in Roman pub-
lic cult. Take, for instance, the figure of Jupiter, whose Capitoline manifestation as
Religion and Roman Coins 155Figure 11.24 Denarius of Julius Caesar, 44 bc, with sacrificial implements combined
with symbols of prosperity. 19 mm.Figure 11.25 Base-metal coin of Constantine I, ad321, showing a globe resting on an
altar. 19 mm.