CHAPTER SIXTEEN
Complex Rituals: Games and
Processions in Republican Rome
Frank Bernstein
Within the discipline of comparative religions, festivals are regarded as the ideal type
of complex rituals because rituals are differentiated in terms of the degree of delib-
erate sequencing of ritual components, and the expenditure and duration included
(Gladigow 1998a). In ancient Rome it was precisely the festival known as the games,
the ludi, among the numerous other Roman festivals, which best meets the above
ritual criteria. However, modern perspective on the games is largely based on the
games of the imperial period, which were opulent extravaganzas staged by the principes,
and on images of the frenzied masses in the amphitheater and circus. Even when
we consider the bloody persecutions of Christians, the procedure for martyrdom
itself seems to have been determined by an appetite for entertainment and public
amusement. Of course the games also fulfilled other functions in imperial Rome,
such as helping to maintain public order. Still, we must not forget that the Roman
games were originally an integral part of the program of public festivals which con-
tributed to the res publica Romana’s worship of the gods. In order to clarify the
original role of the games this chapter will focus on the period of the republic.
Even from an early date, the ludiwere held for the sake of the city, which is why
they may be regarded as ludi publici, as public games (Cic. Leg.2.22, 2.38). The
clearest expression of such a role was the introduction of games staged regularly
on fixed days in the year, the ludi stati(vi)or annuirespectively, in the festival
calendar, where they were shown as public holidays, as feriae publicaeof the Roman
community. Thus the gladiatorial combats (ludi funebres), first held in 264 bcin
the course of funeral ceremonies in Rome (e.g. Val. Max. 2.4.7), fall outside the
category of ludi publicifor the period of the republic, since they were not connected
to fixed public holidays but preserved their private character until the end of the
republic. True examples of ludi publicican be found in the chariot races held in
the Circus Maximus, later also in animal hunting, as well as in the performance of