of the ludi Florales(Ov. Fast.5.295–330; Livy 41.21.10 –11, 42.2.6 –7), then it must
be clear that the ludi publiciindeed fulfilled diverse functions, a phenomenon that
requires closer consideration.
The early introduction of a pre-literary stage play into the “liturgy” of the public
games, and the increasing use of optional spectacles launched by the senate, served
as religious-political measures of the first order for coping with both internal and
external crises. Only the pietas(“loyalty”) owed to the gods, only the conscientious
religio(“scrupulous observation”) that was understood as a deliberate cultus deorum
(“cult of the gods”) in order to work toward a lasting pax de(or)um(“propitious
attitude of the gods”), could lead to any manner of success, according to deep Roman
conviction. The insight that everything, no more and no less, was directed by the
work of the numina(e.g. Cic. Har. resp.19) was firmly rooted in Roman think-
ing. Military defeats, setbacks and losses, serious breakdowns in supplies, as well as
occasional internal discontent and widespread uncertainties among the people were
considered to be the consequences of a religio neglecta(“neglected cult”), and the
expression of an ira de(or)um(“anger of the gods”) provoked by this. Such diffi-
culties could therefore be interpreted as mere unfortunate intervals on an ultimately
victorious and successful way which it was essential to tread purposefully under the
protection of the gods, who had been put into a well-disposed and gracious mood
by the games. Thus the canon of the extraordinary and also regular public games
and the circle of the deities being worshiped were simply enormously expanded. At
the same time the “liturgy” of the spectacles was decisively elaborated, when the
Punic Wars and the confrontations with the Hellenistic east presented the greatest
challenges to the rising Roman state and its society. The choice of the divine ded-
icatees, and the form of the expanding games that shaped public life far more than
the other rites to appease the gods, were now determined by Greek concepts of gods
and ritual forms. This upswing in the array of public games in the age of the Punic
Wars and overseas expansion, this dynamic development, coincided with the rise and
self-assertion of the nobility, who discovered enormous possibilities for functions
in the essence of the games, in the singularity of their ritual, and elaborated them
decisively.
The Nobility and the Elaboration of Public Games
The dynamic shifts in the process of development in the system of public games were
closely linked to the nobility’s shifting conception of itself, especially as this office-
and achievement-oriented ruling elite was characterized by a fundamental receptiveness
to Greek influences. However, through Rome’s wars in southern Italy and Sicily,
close contacts with Greek culture also resulted for broader sections of the citizenry.
The highly developed theater system in particular had left a lasting impression on
the troops. Thus the introduction of dramatic performances after the conclusion
of the First Punic War did not come about just by mere chance when, in 240 bc,
the poet and actor Livius Andronicus produced Latin versions of Greek dramas forComplex Rituals 227