religious-cultic dimension of the ludi publiciwas by no means abandoned. And yet
the amply familiar process of disintegration of the Roman ruling elite was also reflected
by the further development of public games.
Sulla, Caesar, and the New Public Games
The new public games of the late republic owed their existence to the ambitions of
the great individual personalities Sulla and Caesar, the dictators who probably made
their mark most lastingly on the old res publica Romana. Thus it was not old state
deities for whom still more ludi publici stati(vi)were now established. Instead it was
one of those cult personifications that had conquered the Roman pantheon with the
rise of the nobility: the goddess of victory, who was ultimately to develop from a
Victoria populi Romaniinto a personal tutelary goddess.
After Sulla had defeated the Italians at the Colline Gate on November 1, 82 bc,
he probably soon brought about a recommendation by the senate on the establish-
ment of the ludi Victoriae, the center point of which was to be marked by that mem-
orable date (Velleius 2.27.6). Already in the following year, scaeniciand circenses
were given by the praetorian curatorSex. Nonius Sufenas (RRC1.445 no. 421.1),
a “classical” program that probably conformed with the usual “liturgy,” with a
procession and sacrifices. However, the dictator had deliberately avoided apostro-
phizing the goddess of victory as Victoria Sullana. After all, the new public annual
games were intended to contribute toward the acceptance of his restoration of the
res publica Romana. Thus the ludi Victoriaecelebrated the victory of the populus
Romanus. However, this victory could hardly have been achieved without the future
reformer’s leadership, so we find Victoria appearing as a deity personally standing
by the commander. Her annual games, which were ultimately to extend from
October 26 until November 1, thus became permanently associated with the
dictator’s person and indirectly turned into a celebration of thanksgiving for the
well-ordered Roman state, organized for the tutelary goddess and her protégé.
This ambivalent, all in all rather suggestive concept of Sulla, trusting in the success
of his reform work, and influenced by the Greek-Hellenistic agonesin honor of out-
standing persons, made the way free for Caesar. This level of instrumentalization
and politicization of the ludi publiciin an individual’s interest had been previously
unattained.
Caesar’s frequently extolled skill in the political use of symbols and rituals was
concentrated to a considerable extent in the suggestive forms and traditions of the
public games. Thus his ludi Victoriae Caesarisand the honors shown to him within
the scope of the public games bring us to the threshold of the imperial period. The
medium of the ludi, which were effective as publicity and easily manipulated, was
decisively employed by Caesar for his own objectives. Already his institution of the
new permanent public games shows the dictator’s political skill. Before Pharsalus,
Caesar vowed a sanctuary to Venus Victrix (App. Civ.2.281), that goddess to whom
Pompey had dedicated his theater temple in 55 bc(Tert. Spect.10.5). Caesar let
Complex Rituals 231