the current state of blessing. In its ritual context, the hymn reflected the present
period of civil harmony, but also served to legitimate Augustan rule by evoking divine
favor toward the new state of affairs. A final example of the use of prayer to estab-
lish and support imperial rule is found in the annual prayers for the welfare of the
emperor and his family, preserved in the Acts of the Arval Priesthood (see above).
These are clearly modifications of republican prayers offered annually for the safety
and prosperity of the state. Now, however, the state’s welfare is represented as depen-
dent on that of the emperor. The new prayers served to communicate this novel
state of affairs but also, through the power of ritual, to establish it as convention.Conclusions
While scholars of Roman religion have paid considerable attention to festivals and
ritual acts, they have for the most part neglected the study of prayer in its own right.
This neglect belies the significance of prayer in the actual practice of religion. Although
sacrifice was certainly the heart of Roman ritual, sacrifice without prayer, as Pliny
the Elder commented, was useless. Without words of prayer to identify the purpose
of rituals, neither the divine recipients nor the human audience could understand
what was happening. As in those mute paintings and relief sculptures, there would
be no clue whether the intent was petition, oath, or thanksgiving. The term “sup-
plication” (supplicatio) illustrates this problem well. The Romans used the same word
to identify public days of prayer and offering for propitiation, expiation, and thanks-
giving (Halkin 1953: 9–13). The only distinguishing factor was the content of the
prayers of magistrates and people.
Prayers merit close attention not just to identify the immediate objective of a ritual
but to gain insight into the mentalité of Roman religion. The content of prayers
points to a predominant interest in the physical world of the here and now, not in
a personal afterlife or morality. Prayers seek health and safety, success and prosper-
ity. Furthermore, no area of life was devoid of prayers, from politics to war to
family life. While cynics may question the religious quality of the public prayers of
magistrates, literary texts and votive inscriptions attest the many aspects of private
life where individuals sought divine aid: birth, illness, journeys, business. All these
prayers demonstrate concerns about the lack of control and predictability of daily
life, as well as a fundamental belief or hope in the power of supernatural beings to
affect that condition. In addition, there is a noticeable anxiety before the great power
of divinities for good or ill, seen in the variety of cautionary statements in vows
and oaths.
The study of public prayers also contributes to the understanding of Roman
society. They demonstrate the intermingling of religion with the political concerns
of the elite. Similarities between issues voiced in official prayers and senatorial
debates underscore that junction. The personalization of prayers, which spotlights
the elite mediators of divine favor – magistrates, commanders, emperors – served to
construct and preserve elite domination. Prayer could also bolster public morale in
times of crisis and support optimism in good times. Public prayer thus met needs
Performing the Sacred 247