the sources that depict music and dance either in literature or in fine arts. Therefore
there are quite a few contradictions between written and pictorial sources. One ex-
ample of these contradictions is the armed dancers, called ludionesor lydionesin the
context of the pompa circensisby various authors and the pompa triumphalisby Appian
(Libyke 66). The armed dancers of the pompa circensisare described in detail by
Dionysius of Halicarnassus (7.72.5–10):The Dancers were dressed in scarlet tunics girded with bronze cinctures, wore swords
suspended at their sides, and carried spears shorter than average length; the men also
had bronze helmets adorned with conspicuous crests and plumes. One man who gave
the figures of the dance to the rest, taking the lead in representing their warlike and
rapid movements, usually in the proceleusmatic rhythms, led each group. This also was
in fact a very ancient Greek institution.In pictorial representations of the pompa triumphalisand the pompa circensisthere
are quite a few figures that exhibit the features described for the armed dancers of
literary tradition. However, similar figures occur in completely different contexts. For
instance, figures equipped with shield, helmet, and a short lance or herald’s staff
(caduceus) depicted on coins are described by others as either heralds or dancers
(Fless 1995: pl. 11, figs. 2– 4; 2004: 39f., nos. 18 –22, pl. 11, fig. Rom 21). Equipped
with a short tunic, a shield, a staff, and no helmet, but displaying long hair, similar
figures occur in depictions of triumphal processions and a procession honoring the
tenth anniversary (decennalia) of Antonius Pius (Gnecchi 1912: 2. pl. 46, fig. 1;
Fless 2004: 40, no. 22). The outfit of these figures closely resembles that of the
bearers of incense burners and signs (tituli) (Fless 1995: pls. 7– 8). Therefore these
shield-bearers were interpreted as accompanying participants in the procession.
Similar procession attendants are described in texts. For instance, mastigophoroiare
mentioned as participants in the procession and stewards of the theater in an inscrip-
tion found in Oinoanda in Asia Minor (Wörrle 1988: 11, l. 63–5; Fless 2004: 57,
no. 128). They carry shields, confirming their function as armed custodians.
Regarding the written description of shield-bearers and its context, several inter-
pretations are possible. One has to emphasize that none of the shield-bearers on official
monuments is actually displayed dancing. This, however, does not necessarily mean
that there is no pictorial formula for the representation of the armed dance. There
is a long tradition of depicting armed dancers in Greek and Etruscan art that was
adopted by the Romans (Shapiro et al. 2004: 314 –17 (M. Lesky), 337– 40 (K.
Giannotta). Usually these armed dancers hold a shield in their raised left hand while
carrying a weapon in the right and moving on tiptoe with an implied rotation. These
armed dancers are especially found on monuments of decorative art dating from the
early Roman imperial period, that is, decorated bases or other representations in relief
(Schneider 1990). The fundamental methodological problem here is to decide
whether those images represent correct portrayals of contemporary rituals or
archaizing or historical imagination. The archaizing style of certain images, some icono-
graphic peculiarities, and the specific context suggest separating those images of armed
dancers from the so-called historical reliefs. It is a separate class of images that also
contains dancing figures of Bacchic thiasos.
254 Friederike Fless and Katja Moede