composed before Ad nationes(Becker 1954: 348 –9). It is directed to the interior
of the Christian community, to all those baptized (M. Turcan 1986: 37– 45) and
not just to the catechumens (dei servi), whom he mentions at the start of the work.
Here Tertullian announces the general plan of the work, the prohibition of shows
to Christians by faith, truth, and discipline, and, in chapters 2 to 4, he develops the
justification of these three points. After this introduction (chapters 1– 4) Tertullian
devotes the first part of the work, from chapter 5 to chapter 13, to demonstrating
that these shows are idolatrous in their origins (5), their names (6), their ceremo-
nial – that of the circus – (7), their venues – a study of the circus – (8), and their
techniques – those of the circus (9). Next he develops the theme of idolatry in the
theater (10), in the arena (11), and in the amphitheater (12), devoting chapter 13
to his conclusions. The second part goes from chapter 14 to chapter 20, where
Tertullian explains that the shows are contrary to Christian discipline. In the third
part, chapters 21 to 30, he claims that the shows are incompatible with God and
truth (M. Turcan 1986: 35–7).
With regard to his critical view of Roman religion, in the first part of the work
Tertullian refers to religious institutions and practices of the Roman state and its
derivations, the games (ludi), criticizing the rituals and traditional festivities of Roman
religion, during which different types of shows and ritual acts were carried out. His
references to the Roman authors from whom he has gleaned the information show
that he directs his criticism toward the rites of the city of Rome, rather than the
rites that his fellow citizens practice in the city of Carthage. In chapter 5, expressly
mentioning Varro and Suetonius, Tertullian refers to the origin of the games, show-
ing their close relationship with religion, since many religious festivities derived from
the games, and he gives several examples that tend to highlight the relationship between
the games and the cult of different Roman gods in their corresponding festivities.
Thus the festivity of Liberalia was held in honor of Liber Pater, Ecurria in honor of
Mars, and Consualia of Consus.
After treating the origin of the games as more or less legendary, Tertullian goes
on to deal with the games of a historical time, whose names have not changed since
their foundation, showing the idolatrous nature of their origin because they point
to their link with the god to which they have been dedicated. This explains
why Tertullian makes no mention of the ludi Romaniin honor of Jupiter, the most
important in Rome, or the ludi Magni, or the ludi Plebei, because their names do
not evoke the religious character of the festivity and, therefore, do not ground the
relationship of the games with idolatry. Thus, Tertullian attacks Roman institutions
and all forms of games: The games that honor the gods are considered idolatry and
the games that honor the deceased are considered superstition:
You have festivals bearing the name of the great Motherand Apollo of Ceres too, and
Neptune, and Jupiter Latiaris, and Flora, all celebrated for a common end; the others
have their religious origin in the birthdays and solemnities of kings, in public successes
in municipal holidays (reliqui ludorum de natalibus et sollemnibus regum et publicis
prosperitatibus et municipalibus festis superstitionis causas habent). There are also testa-
mentary exhibitions, in which funeral honors are rendered to the memories of privateRoman Religion in the Vision of Tertullian 469