throughout the empire; commercial ship traffic criss-crossed the Mediter-
ranean; and Roman administration kept both roads and sea relatively free
of bandits and pirates. Still, travel cost money, even on foot, and was not
without its attendant dangers, as the catalogue of hardships in 2 Corinthi-
ans 11:25–27 attests. Inevitably, the configuration of the transportation
network would affect Paul’s choice of cities in which to work, and—espe-
cially when factors such as the need to winter are taken into account (Ries-
ner 1994, 274–75)—would also constrain his subsequent travel plans (see,
e.g., 1 Cor. 16:5–6).
Subsistence Missionary activity is inevitably shaped by the need for sub-
sistence, and Paul’s decision to support himself as an artisan had definite
consequences (Hock 1980; Theissen 1982a, 27–67). On the one hand,
Paul’s trade was portable, could probably be plied in any significant Greco-
Roman city, and offered a ready-made social network in which to evan-
gelize. On the other, the work was long and hard (1 Thess. 2:9), and
carried with it a certain social stigma (Hock 1980, 25–26; Ariès and Duby
1987, 117–37).
Degree of Acceptance and Local Opposition Receptivity played a definite role
in determining Paul’s mission locales. He extended his time in Ephesus
because of a “wide open door” (1 Cor. 16:9; cf. 2 Cor. 2:12–13; Col. 4:3). Pre-
sumably this was a factor leading Paul to spend lengthy periods of time in
some places (e.g., Corinth, Ephesus) but not in others (e.g., Athens). Oppo-
sition also played a role, whether stiffening Paul’s resolve to stay and sup-
port the church (1 Cor. 16:9; cf. 1 Thess. 2:17–3:3) or sometimes forcing him
to move on (1 Thess. 2:2, 16, 18). Imprisonment opened up new possibili-
ties as well (Phil. 1:12–14; Col. 4:3–4), with probable implications for the
shape of subsequent work.
Other Missionaries As has already been observed, Paul was by no means
the only missionary at work among the Gentiles. Conflicts with Peter and
others over the terms and status of the Gentile mission (Gal. 2:11–14) seem
to have resulted in a severing of connections with Antioch and the devel-
opment of a more independent mission (Holmberg 1978, 34; Becker 1993,
94–99, 125–26). The need to defend this turf against various interlopers (see,
e.g., Galatians; 2 Cor. 10–13) absorbed a great deal of time and energy. The
collection project itself was initiated, at least in part, to defend the legiti-
macy of Paul’s churches in the eyes of Jerusalem and Jewish Christianity.
Both the break with Antioch and the tensions with other missionaries
probably contributed to a decision to work in fresh areas and, consequently,
to push further west.
“The Field God Has Assigned” 133