example, Apuleius/Lucius in the Isis cult) and in healing cults (Aristides in
the cult of Asclepius). Stark relies here on MacMullen’s (1981) portrait of
Greco-Roman religion as a system of exchanges between the divine and
human realms: the gods give blessings; humans give worship and sacrifice.
While this is generally an accurate view, we should not overlook the affec-
tive or devotional dimension of this exchange system (see below; also Beck,
chapter 11). For example, consider this beautiful second-century prayer
inscribed to the healing god, Asclepius:
Asclepius, child of Apollo, these words come from your devoted servant.
Blessed one, god whom I yearn for, how shall I enter your golden house
unless your heart incline towards me, and you will to heal me and restore
me to your shrine again, so that I may look on my god, who is brighter
than the earth in springtime? Divine, blessed one, you alone have power.
With your loving kindness you are a great gift from the supreme gods to
mankind, a refuge from trouble. (J. Ferguson 1970, 110).In general, the initiate in the Mysteries seems to have had a closer, more
experiential and personal relationship with the deity than the average per-
son in the Greco-Roman world (Burkert 1987, 7–11; Meyer 1987, 8–9). In
some cases, members of healing cults (for example, Aristides) also had a
close relationship with the deity. They considered that they had been
“touched by the god” during their healing. The deity had acted as their
patron, dispensing valuable advice and health. There is an affinity between
healing/votive cults and the Mysteries, as Walter Burkert notes (1987, 12–19;
cf. Beck, chapter 11). Burkert emphasizes that both are expressions of per-
sonal religion in the Greco-Roman world, they are religious activities gov-
erned by private decision rather than public or civic obligation, and they seek
salvation or deliverance through personal relationships with a deity. This
assessment does much to enrich our estimation of healing cults as being
full-fledged religious groups in the Greco-Roman world. Stark likely would
characterize these healing cults as “client cults” (1996, 205–208): that is,
transaction-oriented religions that offered little, if any, sense of community
(cf. R. Collins 1999, 138–39). Such an assessment is too limited.
Superior Charity of Christians
There is no disputing that Christian charity was an ideology put into prac-
tice. Such activity was widespread and it is well attested in early Christian
texts. Nevertheless, in some groups or at some times, we get the sense that
encouragement was needed! Several early Christian writers stress the theme
of charity and almsgiving as a means of sanctification and heavenly reward
(see, e.g., Cyprian, Works and Almsgiving—written at the same time as Mor-