would also be required to explain their reasoning and their solution steps as
they worked through the given problem. For example, Evie and Bruce might
be presented with a problem like the following and asked to share their analy-
sis aloud:
Assume you are the head of the Soviet Ministry of Agriculture and assume that
crop productivity has been low over the past several years. You now have the
responsibility of increasing crop production. How would you go about doing
this? (Voss, Tyler, & Yengo, 1983, p. 211)Their responses could then be evaluated against those of experts in the Soviet
political system in terms of how they represent the problem, consider the his-
torical background, formulate possible solutions, and assess the adequacy of
those potential solutions (Voss et al., 1983).
Contributions of the First and Second Generations
It has been common practice in the past generations of expertise research to
contrast the performance of acknowledged experts (e.g., chess Grandmasters
or Soviet Union experts) with individuals who are unfamiliar or less profi-
cient at the task. The sharp distinctions arising between novices and experts
helped to establish the reasons for superior task performance. This approach
also pointed to the abilities or features that novices must eventually acquire if
they are to operate as experts.
Certainly, the research community has garnered a great deal from the pre-
ceding decades of expert–novice research. For example, these programs of in-
quiry have provided us with evidence that experts:
- Have devoted time and effort to improved performance;
- Possess a base of domain-specific knowledge that is rich and very well in-
tegrated; - Perceive a domain-specific problem in a complex and integrated man-
ner; - Engage in planning and self-analysis;
- Select and execute strategies well matched to the problem at hand (e.g.,
Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999; Byrnes, 2001; Chi et al., 1988;
Ericsson & Smith, 1991).
These indicators of expertise would seem to have direct relevance to learn-
ing within the context of formal schooling. Indeed, there have been efforts to
translate such consistent and significant findings into instructional meta-
phors, models, and programs intent on facilitating academic development
- MODEL OF DOMAIN LEARNING 277