MOTIVATION IN CHESS
Task Value
People can be motivated to engage in an activity for intrinsic and extrinsic
reasons. In both cases, there must be some reward mechanism linked to the
activity. One prominent theory of intrinsic motivation suggests that people
derive pleasure from pursuing an activity when they reach a flow state.
Csikszentmihalyi’s (1975) theory of flow was formulated to define features
related to intrinsic motivation and intrinsic rewards. He proposed that when
individuals experience flow, they are acting with total involvement in the situ-
ation, maintain an internal locus of control, and sustain focused mental con-
centration on a task; such that even distracter variables like environment and
personal concerns are ignored. Individuals who experience flow are rewarded
by the thrill of competition and the challenge it presents, rather than by exter-
nal rewards. As one outstanding chess player noted: “I get a tyrannical sense
of power... as though I have the fate of another human in my grasp... Al-
though I am not aware of specific things, I have a general feeling of well-
being, and that I am in complete control of my world” (Csikszentmihalyi,
1975, p. 51). It is also necessary for individuals in the flow state to perceive
opportunities for action as being evenly matched by their capabilities, so that
boredom or anxiety do not enter the equation. These characteristics allow the
individual to feel in control of the situation, desire a mental or physical chal-
lenge, enjoy the activity for its sake, and crave the thrill enough to seek out
future opportunities—the critical indicators of intrinsic motivation.
Although flow theory may describe practice in some domains, it seems
somewhat implausible for expert chess players to experience all the qualities
of flow for any sustained amount of time, as defined by Csikszentmihalyi.
Since chess skill is measured by a well validated interval-level rating system
(Elo, 1986), serious players typically know exactly how proficient they are,
and exactly how proficient their opponents are. One quality related to flow,
namely the perception of the task matched to level of capability, becomes
nearly irrelevant since rated players know the exact skill of their opponent.
Another example of why skilled chess players may not experience flow
stems from physiological research. During tournament chess alone, physio-
logical parameters vary greatly, suggesting that the individual is very cogni-
zant of external factors and may waver in feelings of control and confidence
(Leedy & Dubeck, 1971). Maximum changes often occur immediately after
the opponent makes a move, and are associated with feelings of surprise, an-
ger, and fear, depending on the quality of the move and whether or not it was
foreseen. Leedy and Dubeck’s (1971) research also showed a correlation be-
tween the score of a player on a motivation test and the degree of physiologi-
cal changes over the course of the game, such that those who put forth the
- MOTIVATION, EMOTION, AND EXPERT SKILL ACQUISITION 301