most effort had the greatest physiological changes. These data clearly suggest
that individuals with higher intrinsic motivation are actually more prone to
factors that would be out of the flow experience. In fact, old homilies in chess
such as “sit on your hands” (do not make an impulsive move) and “when
considering making a move, think of a better move” are aimed at getting
players to control potential negative emotional influences on cognitive proc-
esses supporting the goal of choosing the best move.
We turn next to consider the role of external motivators on internal motiva-
tion, a topic that has engendered some debate (e.g., Eisenberger & Cameron,
1996). Deci, Cascio, and Krussel (1975) defined intrinsic motivation as behav-
ior that allows a person to feel competent and self-determined. They theorized
that when contingent extrinsic rewards are introduced into situations, an indi-
vidual’s locus of causality shifts from the self to the environment, feelings of
competence decrease, and intrinsic motivation suffers. Pritchard, Campbell,
and Campbell (1977) tested this hypothesis to determine the relationship be-
tween intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. They utilized a set of chess problems
that asked experienced chess players to check the Black King with the White
pieces in two moves, taking into account the possible countermoves made by a
hypothetical player. They split subjects into two groups and tested individuals
over two sessions, 1 week apart. For the first session, one group was simply
asked to complete as many problems as possible within 30 minutes. The second
group was told that the individual who solved the largest number of chess
problems in the allotted time would receive $5.00, and that the reward was a
one-time offer not to be proffered at the follow-up session. Thus, when subjects
returned for the second session, both groups were given the same instructions
to complete as many problems as possible within 30 minutes. Results revealed
that subjects in the paid group showed a much larger decrease in the time spent
working on problems from the first to second session than the unpaid group.
Task satisfaction suffered for the paid group as well, with a difference that ap-
proached significance.
Pritchard et al. (1977) interpreted these results to mean that in the case of
extrinsic rewards, intermediate factors related to intrinsic motivation, like
feelings of self-determination, may decrease, but the link between extrinsic
and intrinsic motivation is not necessarily direct. It is plausible that intrinsic
motivation would increase in the face of an extrinsic reward if, for example,
increased feedback (to enhance feelings of accomplishment) was also incor-
porated. By extrapolating these results and conclusions to elite chess players,
it seems evident that the most highly skilled players probably operate on
more than external motivation, because rewards do not provide the incentive
to excel and gain skills, nor do they directly promote a desire to persist with
practice. In fact, in the history of chess, very few professional chess players
have been able to support themselves solely by winning monetary prizes in
302 CHARNESS, TUFFIASH, JASTRZEMBSKI