tween personality traits and the nature of the domain (Avni, Kipper, & Fox,
1987). In chess, research has suggested that players of different skill levels are
differentiated from each other and from the general population in terms of
personality characteristics. Kelly (1985) administered the Myers–Briggs Type
Indicator to a large sample of chess players varying in skill. On the tempera-
ment dimension, chess players had much higher scores for introversion, intu-
ition, and thinking than the general population, and master-level players
were even more likely to be introverted and intuitive than average players. To
the extent that we can link introversion to willingness to spend more time
with things (e.g., chess books) than with people, and intuition to pattern rec-
ognition versus calculation, these results are consistent with other research on
expert performance.
Avni et al. (1987) recruited players ranked from the intermediate to grand-
master level, and divided them into competitive and moderately competitive
groups based on the number of tournaments they competed in per year and
the most current rating they possessed. These groups were compared against
a control group of participants who did not play chess or other strategic
games. All participants were administered subscales from the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) to measure unconventional
thinking (Infrequency [F] scale), neuroticism (Ne scale), hostility (Hos scale),
and suspicion (Paranoia [Pa] scale). The Lie (L) and Correction (C) scales
were utilized as validity indices for the aforementioned elements.
Results indicated that different trait profiles distinguished the groups from
one another. Highly competitive players exuded more suspicion, distrust,
guardedness, and intense concentration than both nonplayers and moder-
ately competitive players. These qualities are highly compatible with the na-
ture of the game of chess, as they are likely to assist in formulating sound
strategy and predicting moves made by the other player. It is reasonable to
argue that because the fit between these traits and the domain of chess is quite
compatible, competitive players are able to express their personality tenden-
cies and enjoy the game for the challenge it offers and the desire to win. It is
also possible that playing chess a great deal (constantly defending against
threats to your army’s well-being) elevates such traits, (the classic case of even
a paranoid is right sometimes) though the well-known stability of personality
traits across the life span would tend to argue against this interpretation. It is
also possible that there are reciprocal relationships between personality and
environment in the same sense that has been shown for work environments
and intellectual ability (see Schooler, Mulatu, & Oates, 1999). That is, per-
sonality traits may initially lead to selecting particular environmental niches
that in turn continue to modify and shape personality.
Highly competitive and moderately competitive chess players were also
differentiated from the control group of nonplayers by unconventional mode
of thinking and inordinate attention to detail, characteristics that are critical
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