with interesting puzzles than students receiving task-contingent (i.e., out-
come) rewards or students in an unrewarded control group. Parallel findings
were found regarding the two measures designed to uncover reasons for the
students’ task choices: self-efficacy beliefs and task interest ratings. These
data imply that when task outcomes (the perceived ends) indicated more ef-
fective learning processes (the perceived means), the students’ beliefs in their
self-efficacy as a puzzle solver grew as did their interest in and play with the
puzzles. There is other evidence that motivating power of outcome rewards
(i.e., the ends of learning) depends on whether or not they convey informa-
tion about personal competence (i.e., having the means to learn). Schunk
(1983) compared the effectiveness of performance-contingent (i.e., learning)
rewards with task-contingent (i.e., outcomes) rewards in teaching elementary
school students arithmetic division. Children received division strategy in-
struction and then engaged in self-directed practice over a number of separate
sessions. Performance-contingent rewards led to the greatest problem solv-
ing, division self-efficacy, and achievement. Offering rewards for participa-
tion led to no benefits compared to a no-reward control condition. These two
studies indicate that when rewards for performance outcomes (or ends) are
linked to the quality of students’ processes (or means), their self-efficacy be-
liefs and motivation to learn in a self-motivated fashion are greatly enhanced.
Goal Beliefs and Orientations
Goal orientation theories make a means–ends distinction between learning and
performance personal goal perspectives (Ames, 1992; Dweck & Leggett, 1988;
Maehr & Midgely, 1991; Nicholls, 1984; Pintrich, 2000). Learning goals refer
to acquiring strategic knowledge and skill (i.e., the means of learning) whereas
performance goals refer to task completion, positive social comparisons, and
ego-enhancement (i.e., the ends of learning). Learning goals (also labeled as
task or mastery goals) seek to enhance competency beliefs whereas perform-
ance goals (also called ego goals) seek to enhance social and personal out-
comes. A learning goal implies that a skill is potentially acquirable whereas a
performance goal implies that a skill is a consequence of an inherent ability
(Dweck & Leggett, 1988), and these beliefs greatly affect how learners interpret
errors. For example, students with a learning goal see errors as sources of in-
formation regarding adaptive solutions whereas students with a performance
goal see errors as indications of an inherent lack of ability.
Wood and Bandura (1989) studied the impact of students’ goal setting with
management training students using a complex computer simulation human
management task. Students given a learning goal were told that managerial
competence on the simulation task is an acquirable skill whereas students given
a performance goal were told that managerial competence on the managerial
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