Motivation, Emotion, and Cognition : Integrative Perspectives On Intellectual Functioning and Development

single exposure to a model’s performance but instead generally requires re-

peated observation, especially across variations in task such as seeing a series

of articles by the editor (Rosenthal & Zimmerman, 1976). A novice’s motiva-

tion to learn at an observational level is greatly enhanced by positive vicari-

ous consequences to the model, such as news awards given to the editor. Al-

though vicarious consequences can motivate without necessarily producing

affect, there is evidence that they can also lead to emotional conditioning

(Bandura & Rosenthal, 1966). Observers’ perception of similarity to a skilled

model and perception of positive consequences to a model will increase their

motivation to develop the skill further (Brown & Inouye, 1978). There is evi-

dence (Bandura, 1997; Zimmerman, 2000; Zimmerman & Rosenthal, 1974)

of observational learning of a wide variety of academic, sport, and work skills

from both live and symbolic (recorded or described) models. In addition to

task skills, observers typically acquire self-regulatory processes, such as ad-

herence to performance standards, motivational orientations, and task val-

ues. For example, journalist models who edit their articles extensively for er-

rors in grammar or accuracy helps observers to discriminate and rectify

common errors in their own work. Motivationally, this coping model also

conveys the high value placed on journalistic quality (Zimmerman & Koussa,

1979) and the need to persistently revise in order to improve the quality of

one’s own work (Zimmerman & Ringle, 1981).

At the second social cognitive marker or emulation level of self-regulation,

a novice learns to duplicate a model’s response on a corresponding task,

which typically involves emulating a model’s general pattern or style of func-

12. SELF-REGULATION 335

TABLE 12.1

Multi-Level Features of Self-Regulation

Features of Regulation

Levels of
Regulation

Sources of

Regulation

Sources of

Motivation

Task

Conditions

Performance

Indices

1. Observation Modeling Vicarous rein-
   forcement

Presence of

models

Discrimination

2. Emulation Performance
   and social
   feedback

Direct–social

reinforce-

ment

Correspond to

model’s

Stylistic dupli-

cation

3. Self-control Representation
   of process
   standards

Self-rein-

forcement

Structured Automaticity

4. Self-regulation Performance
   outcomes

Self-efficacy

beliefs

Dynamic Adaptation

Note. From Table 1.1 in “Achieving self-regulation: The trial and triumph of adolescence”
by B. J. Zimmerman, 2003, in F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.),Academic motivation of adolescents
(Vol. 2, p. 5). Greenwich, CT: Information Age. Copyright by Information Age.