choosing a certain option, both immediately and in the future)” (p. 105). To
illustrate Damasio’s point, think of Kasparov contemplating a move in re-
sponse to the move made by Deep Junior. See also Barnes and Thagard
(1996) for an extension of somatic-marker hypothesis based on Thagard’s
(2000) coherence theory.
In order for schematic anticipation to function adaptively, not only some
somatic-markers have to be in place to alert the conscious agent of the proba-
bility of success of an action based on the past experience, a mechanism sensi-
tive to even a subtle violation of expectations in the perceptual input also
needs to be in place (a surprise effect; see Kagan, 2002) so that discrepancy,
anomaly, and novelty can be detected and effectively dealt with, and the
whole system reconfigured and reorganized accordingly.
In contrast to schematic knowledge, semantic knowledge involves mean-
ing-making. According to Kagan (2002), when conflicting messages are en-
countered, individuals will experience uncertainty and the ensuing desire to
resolve cognitive conflicts. Similar views on cognitive motivation can be
found in Piaget’s (1950) notion of disequilibrium, and Festinger’s (1957) cog-
nitive dissonance theory. As discussed earlier, meanings are embodied in
one’s experienced affect, beliefs, and values (Glenberg, 1997). Whether they
cohere, to use Thagard’s (2000) theory, determines whether the emotional
center of the self holds. Thus, seeking the certainty of meaning in a largely un-
certain world (whether in everyday encounters or philosophic discourse) con-
stitutes a major developmental task for the self (Labouvie-Vief & Gonzalez,
chap. 9).
Summary
Significant advances have been made in understanding intellectual develop-
ment both in the Piagetian and cognitive psychology traditions. The former
focuses on the dynamic integration of affect, motivation, and cognition
through the transactional experiences with the world, and the latter focuses
on mastering skills valued in a culture, and how the process involves affect
and motivation. The consensus seems to be that intellectual development
is not preordained, thus open to experiences and opportunities, and subject
to external and internal constraints. Both individual biological selectivity
(values and aptitudes) and cultural modulation may play a role in shaping
one’s developmental trajectory given sufficient opportunities to explore
various developmental possibilities. Knowledge is embodied through ac-
quired emotions and feelings as well as beliefs, values, and personal mean-
ing systems.
24 DAI AND STERNBERG