joyed enduring influence in their respective cultures (Li, 2003a, 2003b; Tweed
& Lehman, 2002). Even after more than a century’s frequent interactions be-
tween the West and the East, the fundamentals of their respective beliefs, sur-
prisingly, remain distinctly their own (Li, 2003a; Nisbett, 2003).
Since intellectual functioning is at the heart of learning, especially aca-
demic learning in formal settings, cultural beliefs about learning are central
to intellectual functioning. Cultural beliefs about learning play an indispens-
able role in how learners think and feel about learning, how they approach
learning, and ultimately how they achieve learning. In other words, such be-
liefs affect important aspects of learning such as what to learn, how to learn,
what enables one to learn, for what purposes one learns, what would happen
to oneself if one fails to learn well, and so forth. They also influence how
these various aspects are related in learners and how they as a whole function
in their actual learning and achievement. Therefore, regardless of individual
cognitive styles, personal propensities, and learning strategies, children grow-
ing up in different cultures are bound to be shaped by their culture’s beliefs
about learning.
In this chapter, we examine thought and affect and their relationship to
the two cultures’ beliefs about learning. We argue, based on recent empirical
research, that people’s learning in these cultures cannot be fully understood
without considering the influence of their cultures’ beliefs. To do so, we first
review research literature on learning and culture in general. Next, we present
our own research on U.S. and Chinese cultural beliefs about learning. We
then elaborate specifically on how purposes, processes, achievement, and af-
fects (including both positive and negative) may be integrated differently in
U.S. and Chinese learners. We conclude by discussing some new directions
for research in this area.
RESEARCH ON LEARNING IN CULTURAL
CONTEXTS
Human learning as a vast topic has been approached from a great many per-
spectives. However, cultural variations were not studied until recently. Since
the 1980s, the field has witnessed an increasing attention to culture as an im-
portant source of variation in human learning. Three areas are of particular
relevance to individual intellectual functioning: (a) intelligence, (b) achieve-
ment and its motivation, and (c) learning styles and strategies.
Intelligence
As found across cultures, intelligence assumes central importance in human
learning. However, the meaning of intelligence can vary from culture to cul-
ture. In the West, intelligence, often used interchangeably with the concepts
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