ing (Li, 2003a). Respondents wrote: “the purpose of learning is by no means
just to gain knowledge itself; more importantly it is to reach self-fulfillment and
self-perfection,” and “learning perfects his character. Through learning he is
morally elevated. Learning increases one’s knowledge and experience and
strengthens one’s ability to discriminate right from wrong.”
It is worth noting here that some of the U.S. model learners also held self-
fulfillment and self-actualization as their personal purposes of learning.
However, they more emphasized being one’s best through learning academic
subjects rather than to cultivate themselves morally as defined in Confucian
terms. Interestingly, the term learning was not defined, but left for respon-
dents to construe. Whereas U.S. respondents interpreted it as falling within
the realm of learning about and understanding the world, their Chinese coun-
terparts took it to connote moral and social self-perfection in addition to aca-
demic learning (Li, 2002a).
The second purpose, acquiring knowledge and skills for self, is reminiscent
of the U.S. second purpose, developing one’s ability and skill, although Chi-
nese respondents seemed to stress mastery of knowledge more whereas the
U.S. respondents elaborated more on developing ability. For Chinese model
learners, knowledge and skill are also needed for survival, self-sufficiency,
and successful careers. Similarly, these skills are seen as enabling and empow-
ering them to solve problems, maintain satisfying social relations, and reach
their personal goals.
The third purpose is contributing to society. Again, contributing one’s
knowledge and skill back to society has been a consistent call of the Confu-
cian learning model that inspires Chinese learners. This call functions not
only to validate individuals’ self-perfection and their pursuit of knowledge,
but also to bind it to a higher moral and social obligation. Learning, thus, is
no longer delineated as an individual and personal matter; it is also linked to
society and the commonwealth of which one is a part (Cheng, 1996; Li,
2002a; Wu & Lai, 1992). This emphasis may differ from U.S. learning pur-
poses. In the words of respondents, “he hoped to give his knowledge back to
the human world,” “his purpose of learning is to serve his people,” and “his
purpose is to become a journalist so that he could help correct society’s
wrong doings and expose society’s dark side.”
Like the U.S. purposes, these Chinese purposes are inherently related. All
of these purposes have been explicitly part of Confucian beliefs about learn-
ing and are actively promoted by families, communities, schools, and society
at large (Cheng, 1996; Lee, 1996; Yu, 1996). Accordingly, one needs to en-
gage in personal skill learning and moral development before one can mean-
ingfully contribute to society. However, one’s moral self-cultivation and skill
acquisition are not conceptualized as separate or sequential but simultaneous
processes. They take place not as a one-time deed, but continuously from
early on throughout life.
404 LI AND FISCHER