Admittedly, many U.S. model learners also harbored the desire to make
a difference in the word, relieve suffering, and help others. However, this
purpose was not as strongly and prevalently expressed as by their Chinese
peers.
Process of Learning. When Chinese respondents were asked to describe
how their model learners learn (i.e., what they do, what steps they take, how
they behaved when they encountered difficulties, failure, etc.), they surpris-
ingly did not describe much that would be considered learning processes per
se as those described by their U.S. peers. Instead, they wrote extensively
about what Li termed learning virtues, which were also found as central no-
tions of Chinese learning beliefs in Li’s first study (see “quartet” in Fig. 14.2).
The term learning virtues was used because these aspects emphasize a morally
good and desirable dispositional quality that underlies personal agency, ac-
tion, even the use of learning strategies that are integral parts of learning pro-
cesses. Five such virtues emerged.
The first is the notion of resolve (fen or fafen). This concept specifies the
determination or strong decision the learner makes so as to come to a course
of action and a high degree to which he or she is prepared to follow through
his or her commitment. Fen is believed necessary to ensure one’s clarification
of intention, desire, or goal; the course of action one must take to realize
one’s desire and goal; and a way to hold oneself accountable for one’s own
temptation to stray from the course of action, to stop midway, or simply to
give up in the face of obstacles. Frequently, upon making the resolve, the per-
son shares his or her fen with his or her family or close friends who serve as
witnesses. Such witnesses are invited to monitor, to watch for, and even to de-
mand consistency between one’s resolve and follow-up action. Respondents
wrote: “he made hisfenand forces himself to learn no matter what difficulties
he may bump into” and “nothing can stop her, no matter what obstacles; this
has to do with her determination.”
The second virtue is diligence (qin), which refers to frequent studying be-
havior. The emphasis, therefore, falls on much learning and much time spent
on learning. If one is to show some action upon personal resolve, diligence is
the immediate measure and manifestation of resolve. Therefore, resolve and
diligence go hand in hand, thus the combined term in Chineseqinfen. How-
ever, psychologically there are two steps even though behaviorally only dili-
gence is observable. Diligence apart from resolve is also believed necessary
because frequent learning could ensure familiarity, which in turn opens op-
portunities for mastery (Li, 2001; Wu & Lai 1992). Descriptions offered by
respondents include: “he works twice as much. When other people are not
studying, he is. Diligence can compensate for one’s natural weaknesses” and
“in learning you got to do plenty of reading, plenty of listening, plenty of ask-
ing questions, plenty of doing, and plenty of thinking.”
- AMERICAN AND CHINESE LEARNERS 405