sonal goals. Personal curiosity about and interest in the world are very much
part of these purposes. To pursue these purposes, one is actively engaged in a
broad range of activities and experiences. Thinking in all forms, levels, and
dimensions assumes key importance, and inquiry guides one to examine and
question the known and to explore and discover the new. In these processes,
one also needs to communicate in order to understand as well as to make oth-
ers understand one’s own learning results. Curiosity and interest continue to
sustain these learning processes. Yet intrinsic enjoyment and challenging atti-
tudes also accompany the learner throughout these processes. Such learning
leads to achievement that aims at understanding the essentials of a given
topic, developing expertise in a field, personal insights and creative problem
solving in real life, being the best one can be, or all of the above. When these
goals are realized, one feels proud of oneself. However, when experiencing
failure, one feels disappointment and low self-esteem.
Chinese beliefs elaborate on perfecting oneself morally and socially, ac-
quiring knowledge and skill for oneself, and contributing to society. Em-
bedded in these purposes are commitment and passion which may or may not
be intrinsic in origin as understood in the West. To pursue those purposes of
learning, one needs to develop the so-called learning virtues of resolve, dili-
gence, endurance of hardship, perseverance, and concentration. These virtues
are seen as more essential than actual learning activities such as reading,
thinking, asking questions, or doing research. Chinese learners believe that
once the learning virtues are there, one can apply them to all learning activi-
ties and processes. Because these virtues are by nature volitional attitudes, af-
fect is already in every element. An additional affect in the learning processes
is respect for knowledge and teaching authority, which does not mean obedi-
ence and blind acceptance of what is taught. Such learning aims at breadth
and depth or mastery of knowledge, application of knowledge to real life situ-
ations, and unity of one’s knowledge and moral character. When learners
achieve learning, they remain calm and humble; they also watch out for signs
of complacency and arrogance in order to continue self-perfecting. When en-
countering failure, they feel shame and guilt not only themselves but also in
reference to those who nurtured them, which in turn motivates them to self-
improve.
CONCLUSION
In this chapter, we have presented a view of beliefs about learning as an
important topic in intellectual functioning and illustrated with empirical
findings how thought and affect among U.S. and Chinese learners are inter-
twined in their beliefs (Fischer et al., 1990). However, a discussion of integra-
tion between thought and affect involving two cultural groups of learners
412 LI AND FISCHER