oriented processing) and the manipulation of mood versus self-reported affect.
Finally, the few studies that examined arousal versus valence provide a mixed
view of whether it is important to consider both dimensions of affect. There-
fore, we urge researchers to conduct carefully designed experimental and
correlational studies that directly examine how mood influences cognitive
processing, keeping in mind that the type of task, the duration of the task, the
way in which affect is measured or induced, and the distinction between
arousal and valence may be important variables to consider.
CONCLUSION
Despite the advances recently made in studying the relation between affect
and cognitive processing, there are still several theoretical and empirical limi-
tations to this work. First, almost all of the theories discussed focus on the
impact of moods on cognitive processing and largely ignore the impact of
emotions. Although there are likely many parallels between positive moods
and positive emotions as well as negative moods and negative emotions, re-
search specifically examining how various emotions such as anxiety versus
anger might differentially influence cognitive processing is essential in under-
standing how the relation between affect and cognitive processing might play
out in educational settings. As a side note, Forgas (1995) suggested that the
AIM model applies to both moods and emotions. However, he notes that
emotions may initiate motivated processes rather than heuristic or substan-
tive processing suggesting that in those cases, the emotions would not infuse
one’s thinking.
In thinking about emotions, we must make sure that we consider relevant
emotions for academic contexts. For instance, Pekrun and his colleagues
(2002) have developed a scale to measure academic emotions. Prawat and An-
derson (1994) also specifically examined the different emotions that emerge
during mathematics learning. If we want to move forward in our understand-
ing of how emotions are linked to cognitive processing, we must take this
work into account, realizing that certain emotions may be more prominent in
educational settings.
Finally, the consideration of emotions in addition to moods underscores
the necessity of distinguishing between the valence and arousal dimensions of
affect, which is largely ignored by the social psychological theories presented
in this chapter. While a few of the studies reviewed assessed these dimensions
separately and found mixed results, it is important that research be con-
ducted in which both dimensions of affect are examined. Further, if arousal is
determined to be an important predictor of cognitive processing, it may be
necessary to revise or extend some of the current social psychological theories
82 LINNENBRINK AND PINTRICH