knowledge and understanding of the artist's intent, as well as the rationale
behind the use of a particular material and painting technique.
The study of primary sources-such as books and treatises on painting, old
recipes fo r the preparation of artist materials, and guild practices and proce
dures-can contribute to our understanding of the artists' working environ
ment. The study of such documents can be invaluable, but extreme caution
should be applied when interpreting old manuscripts. A number of misun
derstandings have arisen because of the often confusing nomenclature used
in old texts and recipes and the distorted fa cts fo und in old biographies of
artists. Even so, the study of secondary documents, such as biographies of
painters, provides important information of the creative, social, and econom
ical environment in which the artist worked.
Artists and art research
A painting is composed of elements that can be separated fo r study. As there
are schools of artistic thought, there are schools of painting technique. Each
school of painting technique has a specific procedural approach to painting
construction. Although there are many elements common to all painting
techniques, there are also specific elements unique to each. It is possible to
isolate and define these unique qualities fo r each technical approach and to
establish markers fo r a detailed study. These markers, when encountered dur
ing an examination, provide keys to the likely construction of visual effects
within the piece.
An initial, standardized visual examination of a painting by an artist special
izing in painting techniques can �id in any art historical or subsequent sci
entific investigation, not only helping to orient the researcher but also assisting
in the interpretation of the results. If, fo r example, it was determined through
visual examination that a particular piece was a multilayered, glazed construc
tion on panel, it might then be assumed, based on knowledge about the
particular technique, that the piece would have an oily imprimatura on a
gesso ground. Knowing this beforehand, a researcher who discovered an oily
component in the ground layer might investigate the possibility of its having
been absorbed from the imprimatura by the lean ground rather than assuming
the discovery of a novel gesso recipe.Te chnical approaches used fo r creating the illusion of volume
A basic goal of all representational artists-to present an illusion of volume
is accomplished in painting through the juxtaposition of dark and light values,
and of highlights and shadows. This illusion is accomplished traditionally
through one of fo ur basic techniques. A brief analysis of these techniques will
illustrate the possibilities of standardizing the visual examination of paintings
and the usef ulness of the visual markers that can be established as a result of
this approach.
Basic technique. In a direct approach, dark and light values are placed by single,
individual brush marks onto the surface of the painting. There is no blending
of the pigments themselves. Dark values are used to indicate shadow and light
values to indicate highlights, effectively indicating volume. Despite the ob
vious simplicity of this approach, it can be highly successful. The tempera
paintings of the Italian Trecento illustrate the effectiveness of this technique.
Visual markers fo r this technique include a uniform surface of clearly defined,
individual brush strokes that retain their original distinct color and do not
physically blend into surrounding pigments (Plate la, b).
Transparent oil technique. This more complex, systematic approach, which was
developed with the advent of transparent oil media, is exemplified by the
Flemish and early Netherlandish masters. These artists conceived of the paint
ing from its inception as a multilayered object with a structural separation of
color and fo rm. Volume, developed through highlights and shadows in a mon
ochromatic underpainting, was fo llowed by color embellishments.Barrett and Stulik 7