Europe, though, real authority rested in the hands of local nobles. Jews in
these regions obtained privileges and were given restrictions locally; thus,
these privileges and restrictions were generally defined in terms of the imme-
diate economic needs of the nobles rather than larger theological concerns. In a
frontier-like area that was generally underpopulated, it is not surprising that
Jews played an important role in the local economy. By the tenth century, Jews
were also an important element of the small but growing urban population.
This was more the case in France than in the Rhineland. Jews who lived in
French towns were not segregated in a Jewish quarter but settled in various
parts of the town. Contacts between Jews and non-Jews were more extensive
in France than in Germany, where economic contacts laid the basis for cul-
tural and social contacts. By the end of the tenth century, Jewish scholars such
as Rashi were using French words to aid in explicating biblical texts. Jewish
women in France frequently used French names. An injunction against
Christians eating meals with their Jewish neighbors issued by the leaders of
the church in France in 888 suggests that social contacts between Jews and
Christians were not particularly uncommon.
An interesting episode that reflected the stabilizing of the situation of
the Jews took place during the reign of Charlemagne. Like those of nobles,
Charlemagne’s Jewish policies were dictated by non-religious in addition
to theological concerns. By assuming the title of Holy Roman Emperor
during the eighth century, he made an enemy of the Byzantine Empire,
which had the same imperial claim. The endless wars between Charlemagne
and his Byzantine rival led to an initiative to make an alliance with Persia,
which was situated on the other side of Byzantium. To this end, around
800 C.E. Charlemagne dispatched a three-man delegation: two Christians
and a Jew named Isaac. When Isaac returned with a treaty in hand,
Charlemagne rewarded him with a series of privileges. Noting that Isaac’s
commercial and familial connections in the Muslim world had helped
secure the treaty, the emperor eventually extended these privileges to other
loyal Jewish subjects, in order to encourage other loyal and useful Jews to
settle in his domain.
These privileges included, first and foremost, the coveted right to life and
property, the right to own allodial (absolutely owned) land, the right to own
and import slaves, and the right to employ free Christians as servants.
Charlemagne also imposed a fine of ten gold pounds on anyone who harmed
Jews or incited violence against them, payable to the royal treasury. He
required a Christian bringing suit against a Jew to bring three Jewish wit-
nesses in addition to three Christian witnesses. Under Charlemagne’s and his
sons’ protection, the first Jewish communities took shape in the eastern part
of the Holy Roman Empire in Metz in 868 and in Mayence (Mainz) in 906.
By the end of the tenth century, there were two clusters of Jewish communi-
ties: Narbonne, Trois (Troyes), and Lyon in addition to Metz in France; and
Worms and Speyer in addition to Mayence along the Rhine.
The Jews of medieval Christendom 75