unlocked the magical powers of the tetragrammaton. The other, Nizahon
Vitus, assembled Christological interpretations of the Hebrew Bible and then
refuted them one by one – and then challenged the plausibility of the
Christian Gospels.
Rashi’s commentary on the Talmud, in particular, made this rich, complex
corpus of laws and other material accessible to generations of Ashkenazic
Jews. By the eve of the First Crusade, Ashkenazic Jews had established a sta-
ble relationship with the governing powers that be, an effective communal
administration that balanced uniformity and diversity. They had also created
a center of Jewish learning that, while not yet as sophisticated as the older
centers in Spain and Baghdad, was narrowing the gap.
The crusades
The first major setback suffered by Ashkenazic Jews began in 1096 with the
outbreak of violence during the First Crusade. While anti-Jewish violence
accompanied virtually every crusade, the intensity of violence during the
First Crusade caught both temporal and ecclesiastical leaders by surprise, pre-
venting them from adequately protecting their Jewish subjects. During
subsequent crusades, increased preparedness would limit the extent and
effects of anti-Jewish violence.
The long-term origins of the First Crusade include several eleventh-century
developments: the sense of Christian vigor that accompanied victories over
Muslims in northern Spain and over Byzantium in Italy, a reassertion of papal
authority, the general anarchic temperament of the period, and the search by
younger sons of nobility for a valorous cause in an age of primogeniture. More
immediately, the crusade had been summoned in late 1095 by Pope Urban II
to liberate Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the infidel Moors.
Amid this heightened animosity against infidels, Christians in Europe
turned against the Jews, the only infidels who were in plain sight. The pope’s
responsibility in this regard is a matter of historical debate. On the one hand,
he had initiated a preaching campaign to stir up popular support for this
massive and costly campaign. Whether intentionally or not, this helped
transform a relatively restricted army of nobles on horseback into an undisci-
plined mass movement. At the same time, like all political figures, the pope
was adamantly wary of inciting a breakdown in law and order of any kind.
A riot against Jews, after, all could easily escalate into general mayhem.
Anti-Jewish violence appeared in multiple forms. More destructive than
the violence perpetrated by baronial armies were the violent acts committed
by Christian mobs. When incited by preachers such as Peter the Hermit, mob
violence might result in random killings of Jews or in premeditated assaults
on entire Jewish communities, notably those of Speyer, Cologne, and Worms.
Jewish responses to the violence varied accordingly. They attempted to nego-
tiate with the crusaders by offering money, with limited success. The followers
82 The Jews of medieval Christendom