16 ISLAM AT WAR
Empire centered in Rome itself. As with the Persians, the English-
speaking world has generally paid little attention to the Byzantines. These
Eastern Romans had inherited the intellectual, organizational, and military
skills of the old Western Empire and had systematically improved upon
them. By the seventh century, the Byzantine Empire controlled most of
the Mediterranean seacoast. Her navy ruled the Middle Sea in the same
way that her army generally dominated Greece, Northern Africa, Turkey,
Syria, Italy, and even Spain. The Byzantines were thus not only the heirs
of the most successful of the old western powers, but they also produced
the first modern sea-based empire in western history. By the second quar-
ter of the seventh century, Byzantine skills had been honed to their highest
degree, and nothing could stand against Byzantium—or so it seemed.
When Muhammad died in June 632, the new Islamic state was thrown
into confusion and uncertainty. Like so many warlords before and since,
Muhammad had failed to provide for a succession. Indeed, no one knew
if there was to be a succession, or even a continuing government. With
the Prophet’s death, many of the nomadic tribes surrounding Mecca and
Medina fell away—they refused to pay their taxes and renounced their
allegiance to the faith. This became known as “The Apostasy.” Had it
been allowed to persist, it would probably have meant the end of Islam
and certainly would have prevented the great Muslim Empire that soon
would come into existence.
At the very hour of Muhammad’s death, Abu Bekr was appointed—
virtually by acclaim—to lead the new Arab state. A deeply devout and
well-respected man, Abu Bekr combined piety, humility, honesty and solid
common sense. After the death of the Prophet, he was almost certainly
the only man who could sustain the core religious and political founda-
tions of the Islamic state. His reputation was such that he had no rivals—
he was acceptable to both Meccan and Medinan followers.
Abu Bekr held together the core of Islam, centered in Mecca, as the
nomadic tribes that had earlier offered allegiance to Muhammad, fell
away. In July 632 within days of his accession to authority, the new caliph,
as he was now called, sent a raiding force under Usama, the son of the
Prophet’s adopted son, north to raid the Byzantine frontier. This force
took many of the fighting men away from the seat of power, but left
enough to mount a sharp retaliation against tribes that attempted to stray,
or refuse to pay their taxes.
When the raiding party returned from the Byzantine frontier, Abu Bekr
deployed the returning warriors to stamp out any hint of apostasy or re-
bellion. The new commander of this force was Khalid ibn al Waleed.
Khalid soon proved himself one of the great natural military leaders in all