Costing the impacts:extreme events 179damages. Examples of adaptation options are listed in Table 7.1. Many
of the options listed are presently employed to cope with current climate
variability and extremes; their expanded use can enhance both current
and future capacity to cope. But such actions may not be as effective in
the future as the amount and rate of climate change increase. To make
a list of possible adaptation options is relatively easy. If they are to be
applied effectively, much more information is urgently required regard-
ing the detail and the cost of their application over the wide range of
circumstances where they will be required.
Of particular importance is the requirement for adaptation to ex-
treme events and disasters such as floods, droughts and severe storms.^60
Vulnerability to such events can be substantially reduced by much more
adequate preparation.^61 For instance, following hurricanes George and
Mitch, the Pan American Health Organisation (PAHO) identified a range
of policies to reduce the impact of such events^62 :
Undertaking vulnerability studies of existing water supply and sanita-
tion systems and ensuringthat new systems are built to reduce vulner-
ability.
Developing and improving training programmes and information sys-
tems for national programmes and international cooperation on emer-
gency management.
Developing and testing early warning systems that should be coord-
inated by a single national agency and involve vulnerable communities.
Provision is also required for providing and evaluating mental care,
particularly for those who may be especially vulnerable to the adverse
psychosocial effects of disasters (e.g. children, the elderly and the
bereaved).Costing the impacts: extreme events
In the previous paragraphs the impacts of climate change have been
described in terms of a variety of measures; for instance, the number of
people affected (e.g. by mortality, disease or by being displaced), the gain
or loss of agricultural or forest productivity, the loss of biodiversity, the
increase in desertification, etc. However, the most widespread measure,
looked for by many policymakers, is monetary cost or benefit. But before
describing what has been done so far to estimate the overall costs of
impacts, we need to consider what is known about the cost of damage
due to extreme events (such as floods, droughts or windstorms). As has
been constantly emphasised in this chapter these probably constitute the
most important element in climate change impacts.