196 The impactsof climate change
63 SeeGlobal Environmental Outlook 3 (UNEP Report).2002. London: Earth-
scan, pp. 272.
64 Studies by Cline, Fankhauser, Nordhaus and Tol presented in Pearce, D. W.
et al. 1996. The social costs of climate change. In Bruce, J., Hoesung
Lee, Haites, E. (eds.) 1996.Climate Change 1995: Economic and Social
Dimensions of Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
Chapter 6.
65 Smith, J. B.et al. 2001. Vulnerability to climate change and reasons
for concern: a synthesis. In McCarthy,Climate Change 2001: Impacts,
Chapter 19, Box 19.
66 Nordhaus, W. D., Boyer, J. 2000.Warming the World: Economic Modelsof
Global Warming. Massachusetts: MIT Press, pp. 87–91.
67 Mendelsohn, R., Neumann, J. E. (eds.) 1999.The Impact of Climate Change
on the United States Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. As
an example, this recent set of studies for the United States finds that assuming
more realistic adaptation and the application of damage estimates to a 2060
economy rather than to a 1990 economy tends to reduce the impact estimates
in the early 1990 studies and for some cases produces net benefits for the
US economy. However, no account has been taken of the impact of extreme
events in these studies.
68 Cline, W. R. 1992.The Economics of Global Warming. Washington DC:
Institute for International Economics, Chapter 2.
69 Myers,N., Kent, J. 1995.EnvironmentalExodus: an Emergent Crisis
in the Global Arena. Washington DC: Climate Institute; also Adger, N.,
Fankhauser, S. 1993. Economic analysis of the greenhouse effect: optimal
abatement level and strategies for mitigation.International Journal of En-
vironment and Pollution, 3 , pp. 104–19.
70 Adger, N., Fankhauser, S. 1993. Economic analysis of the greenhouse effect:
optimal abatement level and strategies for mitigation.International Journal
of Environment and Pollution, 3 , pp. 104–19.
71 See, for instance, Pearce, D. W.et al. 1996. The social costs of climate
change. In Bruce, J., Hoesung Lee, Haites, E. (eds.) 1996.Climate Change
1995: Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, Chapter 6, pp. 196–7.