temple. Vishvanath is one of the twelve
jyotirlingas, a group of sites deemed
particularly sacred to Shiva. The original
Vishvanath temple was destroyed by the
Moghul emperor Aurangzeb, who built
a mosque on the site; the present
Vishvanath temple was rebuilt next to
the original location. Shiva’s eternal
presence makes Benares one of the
seven sacred cities, in which death
brings liberation of the soul (moksha).
At the moment of death, Shiva is
believed to come to the dying person
and impart his salvific wisdom. Shiva’s
presence is also evident at the crema-
tion ground at the sacred site
Manikarnika Ghat, which is in the very
heart of the city rather than at the mar-
gin as in most other places. Here too
Shiva teaches human beings a lesson;
specifically, Shiva reminds them of their
imminent death. This is not to distress
or depress them, but to spur them on to
serious religious life.
The presence of the Ganges and
Shiva make Benares an ideal place to
die, or to immerse oneself in spiritual
life; what is often overlooked is that
Benares is also an unusually vibrant
place to live. It has a long history as a
trading center and market town, and it
remains so today even though the creak-
ing wooden boats traversing the Ganges
have been supplemented by other
means of transport. Benares is famous
for its artisans, particularly weavers and
metalworkers, many of whom are
Muslim. It has also been renowned as a
cultural center for at least a thousand
years. Benares is still one of the most
important centers in India for all
branches of traditional Sanskritic learn-
ing, from grammar to astrology to med-
icine. It is likewise a center for music,
dance, and all of the arts and has been
home to a galaxy of Indian religious fig-
ures, including the poet-saints Tulsidas,
Ravidas, and Kabir. For a detailed expo-
sition of the city and its life, see Diana
Eck, Banaras,1999.
Benares Hindu University
Indian educational institution founded
in 1916 by the nationalist figure Madan
Mohan Malviya(1861–1946). The World
War I era marked a more activist orien-
tation to the Indian independence
movement. One of the ways this
activism manifested itself was in found-
ing educational institutions, which gave
Indians greater control over the univer-
sities’ mission, tone, and curriculum.
Benares Hindu University was founded
to uphold Hindu cultural and philo-
sophical traditions, but also to educate
its students in the sciences and thus pre-
pare them for the modern world. This
mission reflected the modernist think-
ing of its founders as well as their pas-
sionate commitment to traditional
Hindu culture. It is still one of the finest
universities in India, particularly for the
study of classical Indian culture.Bengali
Modern Indian language in the Indo-
European language family, spoken in
the region of modern Bengal, for which
it is named. Like many of India’s region-
al tongues, Bengali has a long history as
a literary language in its own right. In
the nineteenth century, Calcutta was the
most important cultural center in India
as well as a hotbed of resistance to
British rule. As the vernacular tongue,
Bengali was used in that era’s revolu-
tionary politics, particularly by Bankim
Chandra Chatterjee and Aurobindo
Ghose; it was also the language used by
religious figures such as Ramprasad
and Ramakrishna.Betel
Common name for the small, hard nut
from the areca palm tree, which is con-
sumed by mixing slices of the nut with
lime, tobacco, and spices and wrapping
the whole thing up in a betel leaf. This is
not eaten but lodged against the cheek
and slowly chewed, to let the juices flow.
This method of gradually absorbing the
juice may be the reason for its mostBetel