patiently for the divine presence. In
Sanskritpoetry this bird is called the
chataka; in modern dialects it is known
as the kokila or koil.
Cunningham, Sir Alexander
(1814–1893) First director of the
Archeological Survey of India and the
father of modern Indian archeology.
Cunningham first came to India in
1831 as an officer in the Royal
Engineers, but his hobby was the study
of ancient India’s material artifacts.
This passion eventually resulted in the
formation of the A.S.I., which Cunningham
headed until his retirement in 1885. By
surveying sites, cataloging their con-
tents, and translating inscriptions, his
work was fundamental to preserving
India’s heritage.
Cuntarar
Tamil form of the name for the poet-
saint Sundaramurtti.
Curses
In Hindu mythology, one of the stan-
dard devices either to advance the
story’s plot or to account for some
inexorable event. Such curses are
often the work of sages and other spir-
itual adepts, but they can also be
levied by any person who has perfect-
ly fulfilled his or her social role, such
as a faithful wife, loving son, or devot-
ed parent. Making a curse expends the
spiritual powers that a person has
accumulated. At least in mythical
tales, such curses invariably come
true no matter what a person might do
to try to prevent them. For example, in a
mythic story, King Parikshitsecludes
himself on a high pillar to escape
death by snakebite but is killed when
a divine serpent conceals itself as a
worm in a piece of fruit. Once pro-
nounced, a curse cannot be simply
nullified, although it can be modified
to blunt its overall effect. For a consid-
eration of the function of curses in
Indian mythology, see Robert Goldman,
“Karma, Guilt, and Buried Memories:
Public Fantasy and Private Memory in
Traditional India,” in the Journal of
the American Oriental Society, Vol.
105, No. 3, 1985.Cunningham, Sir Alexander