Radha(who is a symbol for the human
soul.) This particular mode is seen as the
most intense and demanding because of
its emotional closeness. For that same
reason, it is also seen as the sweetest.
Madhusudana Saraswati
(16th c.) A renowned member of the
Sanyasicommunity, a group of renun-
ciant ascetics who were devotees (bhakta)
of the god Shiva. His last name reveals
that he was a member of the Saraswati
sect, one of the most prestigious of the
ten Dashanami divisions; he is said to
have lived most of his life in Benares,
the greatest religious center of his
time. According to ascetic legend,
Madhusudana was responsible for the
creation of a class of fighting ascetics,
the Naga Sanyasis. According to tradi-
tion, Madhusudana created these fight-
ers because he was distressed at the
depredations the Sanyasis suffered at
the hands of hostile Muslim faqirs. After
consulting with Birbal, adviser to
Moghul emperor Akbar, Madhusudana
decided to form a fighting ascetic
order dedicated to protecting other
ascetics. Recruits came from the ranks
of the shudras.
Madhva
(1197–1276) Philosopher and founder of
the Dvaita Vedanta philosophical
school, whose long life was largely spent
in Udupi, a small town near the Malabar
coast in the state of Karnataka.
Madhva’s basic philosophy was the utter
transcendence of God. This conviction
led him to develop the theory of
dualism, which posits a qualitative
difference between God in his
transcendence and the corruptions of
material things. According to Madhva,
God is completely different from
humans and the material world, even
though both came from God and
depend on Him for their continuing
existence. Madhva differed sharply
from the major school, Advaita
Vedanta, which upheld the theory of
monism—the belief that a single
Ultimate Reality (called Brahman) lies
behind all things, which are merely
differing forms of this single reality.
Whereas Advaita collapses all things
into one thing, Madhva firmly insists
on maintaining differences.
Madhva’s emphasis on dualism led
him to articulate these differences,
known as the “fivefold difference”: the
difference between God and Self,
between God and the world, between
individual Selves, between Selves and
matter, and between individual material
things. Even though each Self contains
an aspect of God, fundamental differ-
ence gives the Self only limited capacity
for religious life. This limited power
means that final liberation of the soul
comes solely through the graceof God,
who alone has the power to effect it.
Final liberation was conceived both as
freedom from rebirth and as the soul’s
opportunity to remain in the divine
presence forever.Madhya Pradesh
(“middle state”) Modern Indian state
located in the geographical center of the
subcontinent. Madhya Pradesh was
formed after Indian independence in
1947 from the former Central Provinces,
Berar State, and several princely states.
Large parts of the state are inaccessible
and relatively undeveloped, particularly
in the Vindhya Mountainand Satpura
ranges. Madhya Pradesh also has a large
percentage of adivasis(indigenous trib-
al people), many of whom are very poor.
Madhya Pradesh contains many impor-
tant archaeological sites, including the
Chandellatemples at Khajuraho and
the caves at Udayagiri. Sacred sites
(tirthas) include the Narmada River,
one of the seven sacred rivers of India,
and the holy city of Ujjain. For general
information about Madhya Pradesh and
other regions of India, see Christine
Nivin et al., India. 8th ed., Lonely
Planet, 1998.Madhusudana Saraswati