(1197–1276). Madhva’s fundamental
belief was that God was utterly tran-
scendent, above and beyond the world
and human beings. The strength of this
conviction led him to stress the impor-
tance of graceas the sole means of sal-
vation, since human beings were
unable to save themselves. Given this
dire view of human capacities, Madhva
divided the beings of the world into
three classes: The muktiyogaswere
destined for final liberation, the
nityasamsarins were destined for eter-
nal rebirth, and the tamoyogaswere
predestined for eternal damnation.
Nivedita, Sister
(b. Margaret Noble, 1867–1911) Irish dis-
ciple of the modern Hindu teacher
Swami Vivekananda. Nivedita devoted
much of her life to the service of the
Ramakrishna Mission, particularly the
education of Indian women. Nivedita
was born in Ireland and taught in
London, where she met Vivekananda.
She accepted him as her spiritual master
(guru) and came to India with him,
where she founded the Nivedita Girls
School in Calcutta. Nivedita was part of
the first generation of Europeans who
came to India searching for answers to
life’s ultimate questions.
Nivrttinath
(1268–1294?) Elder brother of Jnaneshvar,
the first great poet-saint of the Varkari
Panth, a religious community centered
around the worshipof the Hindu god
Vithobaat his temple at Pandharpurin
the modern state of Maharashtra.
Nivrttinath is traditionally named as
Jnaneshvar’s religious teacher (guru),
although his younger brother became
more influential. According to tradi-
tion, Nivrttinath’s guru, Gainanath,
was a direct disciple of Gorakhnath,
the celebrated ascetic. This relation-
ship is indicated in the Jnaneshvari, in
which Jnaneshvar describes himself as
a pupil in Gorakhnath’s line. For fur-
ther information see George Weston
Briggs, Gorakhnath and the Kanphata
Yogis, 1973.Niyama
(“observance”) In the ashtanga yoga
taught by Patanjali, the second of the
eight constituent elements of yoga prac-
tice. While the first element lists five
injurious actions and dispositions to
avoid, Niyama gives five positive
instructions, shifting the focus from
abstinence to active cultivation. The five
observances are: purity, contentment,
asceticism, study, and making the lord
the motive of all action.Niyati
(“destiny”) Niyati was the central
philosophical assumption for the
Ajivikas, an ancient and extinct philo-
sophical school. The Ajivikas were
fatalists, who believed that niyati inex-
orably predetermined all things.
Human beings can do nothing to influ-
ence destiny, since they can only do
what has been preordained. The
Ajivikas compared the process of rein-
carnation (samsara) to a ball of string,
which would unroll until it was done,
and then go no further. The word niyati
still carries this sense of “fate” or “des-
tiny,” but with one important differ-
ence: While the Ajivikas conceived
niyati as an impersonal and uncontrol-
lable force, in modern times one’s fate
is believed to result from past karma.Niyoga
(“appointment”) Practice by which a
childless widowcould have intercourse
with her dead husband’s brother, or
some other “appointed” male, in order
to bear a son. The child is considered the
son of the dead man and preserves his
lineage. There is significant disagree-
ment about the propriety of this practice
in the dharma literature. Some of these
texts permit it, although hedged with
numerous conditions, but others
unconditionally condemn it. Niyoga is
one of the practices judged to beNivedita, Sister