(4th–3rd c. B.C.E.), it retained an inde-
pendent identity until the third century.
See also Maurya dynasty.
Panchamahayajna
(“[the] five great sacrifices”) Set of
five ritual actions—brahmayajna, pit-
ryajna, devayajna, bhutayajna, and
nryajana—that are prescribed in the
dharma literature, (texts on religious
duty). These five actions are prescribed
daily religious observances for a “twice-
born” householder, that is, a householder
who has been born into one of the three
“twice-born” groups in Indian society—
brahmin, kshatriya, or vaishya—and
who has received the adolescent reli-
gious initiationknown as the “second
birth.” Each sacrifice(yajna) is directed
toward a different class of beings—from
the Absolute Reality down to animals—
and is satisfied by different actions: to
Brahmanby teaching and studying the
Veda, to the ancestral spirits(pitr) by
offeringsof water (tarpana), to the gods
(deva) by offering clarified butter into
the sacred fire, to the animals and social
outcasts (bhut) by putting out food for
them, and to human beings (nr) by
showing hospitality to guests. In the
time since the dharma literature was
composed, Hindu life has seen signifi-
cant changes in emphasis, and although
some of these are still important in
modern Hindu life—particularly the
stress on hospitality to guests—in most
cases the others have been either elided
or replaced by other religious forms.
Panchamakara
“The Five Forbidden Things,” literally,
“the five m’s”: A group of five things used
for worshipin the secret, ritually based
religious practice known as tantra. This
name arises because the names for all
five of these begin with the letter “m”—
madya(wine), matsya (fish), mamsa
(meat), mudra(fermented or parched
grain), and maithuna (copulation).
They are used in their actual form in
“left hand” (vamachara) tantra, and by
substitution in “right hand” (dakshi-
nachara) tantra.
All five are condemned by
“respectable” Hindu society (the last
because it is characterized as adulter-
ous), and their use in tantric ritual must
be seen in a larger context. One of the
most pervasive tantric assumptions is
the ultimate unity of everything that
exists. From a tantric perspective, to
affirm that the entire universe is one
principle—often conceived as the activ-
ity of a particular deity—means that the
adept must reject all concepts based on
dualistic thinking. The “Five Forbidden
Things” provide a ritual means for
breaking down duality, since in this ritual
the adept violates societal norms forbid-
ding consumption of intoxicants, non-
vegetarian food, and illicit sexuality, in a
conscious effort to sanctify what is nor-
mally forbidden. Tantric adepts cite
such ritual use of forbidden things as
proof that their practice involves a more
exclusive qualification (adhikara) and is
thus superior to common practice. For
further information see Arthur Avalon
(Sir John Woodroffe), Shakti and Shakta,
1978; Swami Agehananda Bharati, The
Tantric Tradition, 1977; and Douglas
Renfrew Brooks, The Secret of the Three
Cities, 1990.Panchang
In Indian astrology (jyotisha), an
almanac documenting the position of
the various celestial bodies during the
course of a calendar year, including the
days of the moon’smonthly cycle, its
progression through the nakshatras,
and the position of the planets. Most
Hindu religious festivals fall according
to a lunar calendar, and thus a panchang
is needed to determine when they will
arrive. A panchang is also important for
helping people to determine auspicious
and inauspicious times for the perfor-
mance of certain activities. The greatest
care is taken in fixing marriage times, to
avoid any possible inauspiciousness
that could affect the marriage, but
in many cases a panchang will bePanchamahayajna