between the seventh and ninth cen-
turies. Together with their Vaishnava
counterparts, the Alvars, the Nayanars
spearheaded the revitalization of Hindu
religion within Tamil Nadu, which was
mostly Buddhist and Jain. Both the
Nayanars and the Alvars stressed pas-
sionate devotion (bhakti) to a personal
god—Shivafor the Nayanars, Vishnufor
the Alvars—and conveyed this devotion
through hymns sung in the Tamil lan-
guage. According to tradition, Cekkilar
was a minister at the court of the Chola
dynastyking Kullottunga II (r. 1130–50).
Cekkilar, distressed by the king’s admi-
ration for a Jain epic poem, composed
his text in an effort to wean the king
away from it. His text portrays these
saints as models of devotion to Shiva
and as salutary examples to others
although at times extreme in their devo-
tion. One example of this intense devo-
tion is Kotpuli Nayanar, who killed his
entire family when he discovered that,
in order to save their lives in a time of
famine, they had eaten rice that
belonged to Shiva’s temple. Although
this is an extreme case, the message is
clearly that devotion to God must
eclipse all other loyalties.
Peshwa
Originally, title given to the brahmin
ministers who served as advisers to the
kings in the Maratha empire.
Traditionally, these ministers were
Chitpavanbrahmins, which gave this
small group influence far disproportion-
ate to its numbers. During the resur-
gence of the Maratha confederacy in the
early eighteenth century, the Peshwas
became de factorulers, although they
continued to govern in the name of the
Maratha kings. At this time, the position
of Peshwa became hereditary. After the
Maratha confederation split into differ-
ent royal states around 1770, the
Peshwas retained control over the
ancestral Maratha homeland in the
western part of the state of
Maharashtra, where they reigned until
it was conquered by the British in 1818.
Pey
(7th c.) With Bhutamand Poygai, one of
the first three Alvars, a group of twelve
poet-saints who lived in southern India
between the seventh and tenth cen-
turies. All Alvars were devotees (bhakta)
of the god Vishnu, and their stress on
passionate devotion (bhakti) to a per-
sonal god, conveyed through hymns
sung in the Tamil language, transformed
and revitalized Hindu religious life.
According to tradition, the three men
were caught in a torrential storm and
one by one took shelter in a small dry
spot, with each making room for the
next. As they stood next to one another
they felt a fourth presence, that of
Vishnu. The Alvars were such great
devotees that their combined energy was
sufficient to provoke Vishnu’s manifesta-
tion. Overwhelmed with ecstasy, each
burst into song, which formed the first of
each of their compositions. For further
information see Kamil Zvelebil, Tamil
Literature, 1975.Phalgun
According to the lunar calendar, by
which most Hindu religious festivals are
determined, Phalgun is the twelfth
month in the lunar year, usually falling
within February and March. Phalgun
concludes with the festival of Holi,
which is the unofficial end of the cool
season. The other holidays in Phalgun
are Janaki Navami, Vijaya Ekadashi,
Shivaratri, and Amalaki Ekadashi.Phallic Emblem
Designation for the linga, the pillar-
shaped object that is the symbolic form
of the god Shiva. The precise sculptural
form of the Gudimallam linga, which
dates from at least the second century
B.C.E., leaves little doubt that this phallic
element is one aspect of the symbol.
What is often overlooked is that an
equally important part of the linga’s
image is the base (pitha) in which
the shaft is placed, said to represent
the female organs of generation. In hisPhallic Emblem