one of several episodes in the Upanishads
in which kshatriyas instruct brahmins,
thus inverting the accepted pattern
that holds brahmins as religious
authorities. These episodes reveal the
nature of wisdom as conceived in the
Upanishads—it is conferred, not by
birth or social position, but by individ-
ual striving and realization.
Pravara
A lineage system, primarily among
brahmins, which builds on the assump-
tions of the gotrasystem (the tracing of
brahmin lineage to one of seven mythi-
cal sages). In his daily worshipa brah-
min would not only mention the name
of his gotra, who is the sage believed to
be the family’s immediate progenitor,
but also the names of other sages
believed to be remote ancestors. Both
these “lineages” were passed down only
through men, since it was customary for
a married woman to adopt her hus-
band’s gotra as part of her new identity.
The only context in which gotra and
pravara were really important was in
fixing marriages, because of the
kinship conferred by these mythic
lineages. Marriage within the gotra
was strictly forbidden, since the
assumption that such people were
directly related made this marriage
incestuous. Marriage within the pravara
was also forbidden, although in
medieval times different groups inter-
preted this prohibition differently.
For some groups, any shared pravara
ancestry would forbid the marriage, but
for other groups one shared “ancestor”
was deemed permissible. The more
lenient interpretation may well have
been spurred by practical difficulties in
making matches.
Prayaga
(“Place of Sacrifice”) The traditional
Hindu name for Allahabad, the city at
the junction of the Gangesand Yamuna
rivers. See Allahabad.
Prayashchitta
A general term meaning atonement for
one’s misdeeds. The Hindu religious tra-
dition gives considerable attention to
penance and expiation, based on the
almost universal Hindu belief in the
inexorable workings of karma.
According to this notion, all good and
bad deeds will eventually have their
effect, either in this life or the next, and
thus one must either atone for the evil
one has done or face its consequences
in the future. Prescriptions for such
expiation can be found as far back as the
Vedas, and the acts prescribed for
atonement fall into several categories:
confession, repentance (which was usu-
ally seen as preparation for expiation,
rather than absolution of the evil itself ),
restraint of breath (pranayama), physi-
cal asceticism (tapas), fire sacrifice
(homa), recitation of prayers (japa),
gift-giving (dana), fasting (upavasa),
and travel to sacred sites (tirthayatra).
The prayashchitta literature is quite
well developed, both in detailing
differing kinds of offenses and their
potentially mitigating circumstances,
and in laying out the types of atonement
to be performed for each offense. For
further information see Pandurang
Vaman Kane (trans.), A History of
Dharmasastra, 1968.Prayoga
(“use,” “application”) In the context
of Hindu ritual, any prescribed proce-
dure to be followed during worship,
meditation, or when performing other
ritual actions.Pregnancy
As in all societies, Hindus regard the
impending birthof a child as a time of
eager expectation tinged with anxiety.
Part of this anxiety stems from purely
physical worries that the pregnancy and
birth proceed normally, and that the
mother and child remain in good physi-
cal health. Expectant mothers are usually
encouraged to rest and are often givenPravara