Priyadas
(early 18th c.) Author of the Bhaktirasa-
bodhini (“Awakening the Delight in
Devotion”), a commentary on the
Bhaktamalof Nabhadas, completed in
- In his text, Nabhadas had given
very brief (six line) biographies of over
two hundred contemporary bhakti
(devotional) figures. These original
biographies are notably free of mar-
velous and miraculous events, with their
major emphasis being the devotee’s
(bhakta) personal qualities, to serve as a
model for others. In his commentary,
Priyadas gives greatly expanded
accounts for each one of the devotees
mentioned by Nabhadas, and usually
describes events to which Nabhadas
makes no reference. At least in the case
of the poet-saint Ravidas, Nabhadas
clearly drew his material from the texts
written by the biographer Anantadas,
but in many other cases his sources
are not clear. The accounts by Priyadas
are larded with miracles and wonders,
and the prevalence of such events,
combined with his chronological dis-
tance from his subjects, makes him
a less reliable source for the lives of
these devotees.
Progress Philosophy
(“jativada”) Progress philosophy affirms
that one can attain complete freedom
from bondage—which in the Indian
context is identified as the end of rein-
carnation (samsara) and final liberation
of the soul (moksha)—and that one can
also specify the necessary and sufficient
conditions that allow human beings to
bring about this freedom. As a rule,
progress philosophy tends to stress
gradual spiritual attainment, in which
very small beginnings can gradually lead
one to the ultimate goal. Progress
philosophers thus tend to stress partic-
ular religious paths that will lead one
to the final goal, and also tend to place
a great significance on actions (espe-
cially ritual actions) as essential parts
of this path. In the Hindu tradition,
most philosophical schools are progress
philosophies: the combined Nyaya-
Vaisheshika school, the combined
Samkhya-Yoga school, the Purva
Mimamsa school, and even the
Bhamati and Vivarana schools of
Advaita Vedanta.Prohibition
Most traditional Hindus have clearly
and strongly disapproved of consuming
liquor, a substance which, because it
may lead to a loss of control, is seen as
impure. Among wealthier Indians,
drinking alcoholic beverages is seen as a
habit that signals the acceptance of
Western values and alienation from
one’s roots, whereas among poorer citi-
zens, particularly laborers, drinking is
often seen as a misuse of money needed
to support a family. For all these reasons,
the imposition of total or partial prohi-
bition has become an effective part of
electoral platforms designed to appeal
to traditional and conservative Hindus.
In 1997, prohibition had been estab-
lished in three Indian states: Gujarat,
Andhra Pradesh, and Haryana. Of these
three, Gujarat is the only one with a
long-standing history of prohibition,
while prohibition in Andhra Pradesh in
1995, and in Haryana in 1996, was
imposed to fulfill campaign promises
made during the state elections in those
years. In both cases, the imposition of
prohibition also stimulated widespread
bootlegging and illegal distilling.Prostitution
Prostitutes or courtesans were a regular
feature of ancient Indian life. But far
from simply offering sexual pleasure,
these prostitutes were in many cases
women of culture and learning. One of
the sections in the Kama Sutrapertains
to such individuals, and the author
Vatsyayana portrays prostitutes as
women who, while clearly outside nor-
mal society, have far greater indepen-
dence than most women. One finds a
similar picture in The Little Clay Cart
(Mrcchakatika), a drama in which thePriyadas