epic. One theory to explain why Tulsidas
brought in this other material argues
that he endeavored to transcend narrow
sectarian boundaries, for example, by
having the god Shivanarrate much of
the text in the form of a dialogue to his
wife Parvati. Later, in part of the final
book, Shiva is supplanted as narrator by
the crow Bhushundi, who symbolizes
the power of devotion to rescue even a
common carrion-eating crow.
The Ramcharitmanashas popularly
been called the “Bible of northern
India,” reflecting its enormous influence
on ordinary people’s piety. Although
according to legend Tulsidas faced some
opposition from brahminswho thought
it sacrilegious to translate the Ramayana
into a vernacular tongue, the text has
been immensely popular with ordinary
people. Even now there are many people
who can recite large sections from
memory (“discourses” (katha) on the
text can draw hundreds or thousands
of people) and many of the verses have
become proverbial expressions in
modern Hindi. Aside from reading or
hearing the text, millions of people see
it each autumn, in the dramatic pre-
sentation known as the Ram Lila. The
oldest and most traditional Ram Lila,
held at Ramnagarin Benares, uses the
text from the Ramcharitmanas, and
takes great pride in this traditionalism.
For further information see Philip
Lutgendorf, The Life of a Text, 1991.
Ramdev
(1404–58) According to legend, a Rajput
prince whose piety and ability to per-
form miracles won him renown during
his lifetime, and who was considered an
incarnation of the god Krishnaafter his
death. His tomb in the village of
Ramdevra, east of the city of Jaisalmer
in the western part of the state of
Rajasthan, has become a pilgrimage site
for devotees (bhakta) who come seeking
various favors. Little is known about
Ramdev’s life, and unlike many of the
other medieval saints, he has no poetry
or body of literature attributed to him,
nor did he serve as the leader of any
organized religious community. His
original followers came to him because
he was able to meet their needs, and for
this reason pilgrims come to him still.Ramdevra
Village and sacred site (tirtha) in the
northwest corner of the state of
Rajasthan, about sixty miles east of the
city of Jaisalmer. Ramdevra is famous for
the grave of the fifteenth-century saint
Ramdev, as well as the grave of his low-
castedisciple Dadi Bhai. During his life-
time Ramdev was famous for his piety
and generosity, and was credited with
performing various miracles to aid those
in need. Since his death he has come to
be regarded as an incarnation of the god
Krishna. Although pilgrims can come
throughout the year, most come during
the annual religious fair (mela), at which
time the near-deserted town takes on
the semblance of a bustling city. Many
of the visitors come to ask Ramdev
for something, often related to
concerns over health or prosperity.
Others come to show gratitude, espe-
cially those whose past wishes have
been granted, and to maintain their
relationship with him.Rameshvar
Manifestation of the god Shiva, in his
form as “Rama’sLord” at Rameshvaram
in the state of Tamil Nadu. The image of
Rameshvar at this site is a linga, a pillar-
shaped object said to represent Shiva’s
symbolic form. The Rameshvar linga is
one of the twelve jyotirlingas, a network
of twelve lingas deemed especially holy
and powerful, and at which Shiva is
thought to be uniquely present. The
site’s mythic charter is drawn from the
Ramayana, the earlier of the two
Sanskritepics. According to tradition,
Shiva is worshiped here by the god
Rama, the epic’s protagonist, although
there are differing accounts of when this
happened. In some stories, it is to gain
Shiva’s blessing immediately beforeRameshvar