Theories of mindfulnessTheories of mindfulness Theories of mindfulnessTheories of mindfulness
emotion is experienced, our thought and action rep-
ertoire is narrowed to certain actions that were orig-
inally relevant for survival. Even today, these ancient
survival programs are still active. Positive emotions,
however, broaden our thought and action repertoire
and help us build lasting personal resources. This
model implies that positive emotions work to dis-
solve their negative counterparts.
Seen from an evolutionary perspective, posi-
tive emotions do not appear to be as important
for survival value as negative emotions like fear
or anger. These negative emotions trigger actions
like running away or attacking, both necessary for
surviving the dangers of primeval times. Feeling
joy or contentment does not have such a clear
survival value, but from a psychological perspec-
tive, Frederickson claims that positive emotions
helped primitive humans to broaden their minds
and build resources that sustained them in diffi-
cult times.
Exercises in mindfulness may help us to manage
our emotions. If we are aware of our negative emo-
tions they may be neutralized, whereas an attempt
to control them may lead to suppressing them. If it
is not possible to neutralize harmful emotions psy-
chological advice should be sought and psychother-
apy may be necessary. Cultivated positive emotions,
however, not only counteract negative emotions but
also broaden individuals’ habitual ways of movement
and of thinking and build their personal resources
for coping.
We judge our actions. This judgment influences
our future behavior. A judgment can be positive,
negative, or neutral. From our past personal expe-
rience we are motivated to repeat in the future
actions which we have judged positively. Through
frequent repetition of the same action and the
same judgment, our behavior becomes automatic.
Constant avoidance also becomes automatic,
although the disadvantage of avoidance is that we
do not build up experience and therefore have no
chance to change our behavior. This may affect
other areas and functions. If we take an injured
shoulder as an example, avoiding any movement
within the injured area causes increasing restriction
over a larger area.
This thinking is closely connected to the yoga
tradition. The vttis, the waves or movements ofconsciousness, influence our actions and behavior.
Remembering past events influences our behavior
in the present. Yoga-Sūtra II.16 states: “The pains
which are yet to come can be and are to be avoided”
(Iyengar 2002a, p. 12 3 ). Yoga practice teaches us to
set ourselves free from these boundaries which were
created through previous painful experiences. We
can learn behavior and movements that are appro-
priate for the present. We can do this during the
practice of yoga āsanas, which are to be performed
according to our individual situation – there are lots
of modifications. If performed correctly the āsanas
do not cause pain or negative emotions. If unpleas-
ant emotions arise during the correct practice of
āsanas, they are from remembering past events that
are stored in the body. Or they can be caused by
distracted senses and a distracted mind or thinking
about the future. Yoga practice helps us to become
calm in the present.
As we age and use habitual attitudes or body move-
ments over a long period, it becomes increasingly
difficult to discriminate between habitual move-
ments and necessary natural movements. Often
habitual movement patterns become second nature.
But the constant repetition of habitual movements
causes change. In the body soft tissues change and
the brain loses flexibility. Restrictions in movement
occur. Therefore it is important to become aware of
our habits of movement.
Automatic actions save time, but the disadvantage
is that we may react inappropriately in a changing
context. An action which we carry out automatic-
ally because of countless previous experiences may
not be suitable for a new real situation. It becomes
more difficult to correct ourselves and adapt to the
new situation.
Mindfulness allows us to control automatic
actions: we can benefit from the advantages of auto-
mation while avoiding the disadvantages. The speed
of automatic actions is useful; nevertheless mindful-
ness helps us to control these actions. Generally, our
judgments and thoughts lead to either positive or
negative emotions. In cognitive psychotherapy this is
used to change behavior patterns. If we observe our
automatic attitudes, judgments, thoughts, and sen-
sations we can change them (Ellis 1994, Beck 200 6 ).
Again, this is possible using mindful awareness of
these inner events.