Buddhism : Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, Vol. VI

TANTRIC BUDDHISM (INCLUDING CHINA AND JAPAN)

social accommodations (Dutt 1962: 25ft). Lacking a centralized pan-regional
bureaucracy or a universally accepted center of doctrinal authority (Lamotte
1984), the Buddhist saf(lgha eventually became dependent upon the power of
their polity's royalty to insure its orthopraxy/doxy (Tambiah 1976: 32-72;
159-164).^9 In North Indian history until 1200, as in later Nepalese history under
Malia and Sah rule, the socio-cultural context of Buddhism was also one of
increasing Brahrnanical dominance in the cultural environment (and especially
true in the legal domain).
The Newar Buddhist saf(lskiiras outlined in the Jana .!ivan manual closely
follow the classical paradigms of Indian Brahmanical tradition (Pandey 1969),
marking the key points in a person's life with vajrayiina rituals that remove
forces that threaten his passage, empower him, while eliminating any incurred
pollution. These Buddhist pujiis follow many ancient Brahmanical ritual proce-
dures, but have been transformed with alternative Buddhist gestures (mudriis),
incantations (mantras, dhiirmfis) and meanings. In general, Neward Buddhist
ritualists adopted many core components of Brahrnanical ritualism (caste per-
ceptions, rite organization, mantra belief, purity concerns) but maintained separ-
ate boundaries through transpositions of ritual implements, priestly vestments,
mantra formuli, mudriis, theories of ritual empowerment. The remaining task in
this section is to underline some key points in the Jana .!ivan text that reflect the
main outlines of this Newar Buddhist adaptation.

Caste

Particularly striking is the acceptance of caste categories in ritual reckoning. The

text states that birth into a Sakya caste family is a necessary prerequisite for

entry into the Newar saf(lgha. Because Buddhism existed for at least 1700 years

in India, this attention to caste should not be surprising.^11 Nonetheless, the

Newars' use of strict endogamous lineages to define saf(lgha membership is a

unique and heterodox feature of the modem tradition.

It is also noteworthy that the vajriiciiryas recognize Hindu deities and

perform pujiis to them. But this is classical cosmological orthodoxy: Newar

Buddhists regard all Indic and indigenous deities as subservient to the Buddhas

and Bodhisattvas. Ancient doctrinal and iconographic traditions that depict this

image of Buddhist spiritual conquest are still maintained in the Kathmandu

Valley. By extending their rituals to the "Hindu" deities, Newar Buddhists are

not practicing "syncretism" but making the classical statement of Buddhism's

superior spiritual status, especially by asserting these divinities' conversion by

their tradition's divinities.^12

Disease and karma

The passages dealing with karma indicate that Newar Buddhism adheres to
orthodox doctrines expressed in the earliest texts. Karma is regarded as the