TANTRIC BUDDHISM (INCLUDING CHINA AND JAPAN)68 On ko-i, see Ch'en, Buddhism in China (n. 18 above), pp. 68-69; E. Zurcher, The
Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation of Buddhism in Early
Medieval China, 2 vols., Sinica Leidensia II (Leiden: Brill, 1972), I: 184; T'ang
Yung-t'ung, "On Ko-yi, the Earliest Method by Which Indian Buddhism and Chinese
Thought Were Synthesized," in Radhakrishnana: Comparative Studies in Philosophy,
ed. W. R. Inge eta!. (London: Allen & Unwin, 1951), pp. 276--86; and Fung Yu-lan,
A History of Chinese Philosophy, 2 vols., trans. Derk Bodde (Princeton, N.J.: Prince-
ton University Press, 1953), 2:241--42.
69 The best recent work relating to the T'ai-i cult is Marc Kalinowski's "La transmission
du dispositif des neuf palais sous les six-dynasties," Tantric and Taoist Studies 22
(1985): 773-811. Kalinowski criticizes the use of the terms lo-shu and ho-t 'u as
equivalents for a magic square of nine as a neo-Confucian anachronism. For more
traditional views of this cosmology, see Fung Yu-lan, vol. 2, chap. 2, "Tung Chung-
shu and the New Text School," and chap. 3, "Prognostication Texts, Apochrypha, and
Numerology during the Han Dynasty." Also, Marcel Granet, La pensee chinoise
(Paris: Editions Albin Michel, 1934; reprint, 1968), pp. 127-279. Briefer and more
engaging are the articles by Schuyler Cammann, "The Magic Square of Three in Old
Chinese Philosophy and Religion," History of Religions I (August 1961): 37-80,
"Islamic and Indian Magic Squares, Parts I, 2," History of Religions 8, nos. 3 & 4
(February and May 1969): 181-209, 271-99, and "Old Chinese Magic Squares,"
Sinological7 (1962): 14-53. For the Ho-t'u, see Michael Saso, "What Is the Ho-T'u,"
History of Religions 17 (February-May 1978): 399--416. John B. Henderson treats the
diagrams in his The Development and Decline of Chinese Cosmology (New York:
Columbia University Press, 1984), pp. 59-87.
70 There are several sources on the Ming-t'ang. The dated but classic volume is by W. E.
Soothill, The Hall of Light: A Study of Early Chinese Kingship, ed. Lady Hosie and G.
F. Hudson (London: Lutterworth, 1951). The best current source in English with a focus
on the T'ang dynasty is Howard J. Wechsler, Offerings of Jade and Silk: Ritual and
Symbol in the Legitimation of the Tang Dynasty (New Haven, Conn., and London:
Yale University Press, 1985), pp. 195-211. Comments on the ming-t 'ang may also be
found in Granet, pp. 90--99, 175-84, 210--29. Henri Maspero has a piece on the struc-
ture, "Le Ming-Tang et Ia crise religieuse chinoise avant les Han," Melanges Chinois et
Bouddhiques 9 (1951): 1-71. John S. Major includes the ming-t'ang in his "Five
Phases, Magic Squares, and Schematic Cosmology," which appears in Explorations in
Early Chinese Cosmology, ed. Henry Rosemont (Chico, Calif.: Scholars Press, 1984),
pp. 133-66. Also see Paul Wheatley, The Pivot of the Four Quarters: A Preliminary
Enquiry into the Origins and Character of the Ancient Chinese City (Chicago: Aldine,
1971), n. 129, pp. 470--71. A detailed account may also be found in the great Ch'ing
Dynasty Encyclopedia, the Ku-chin t'u-shu chi-ch'eng (Taipei: Wen-hsing shu-tien,
1964) in the "Explanation of the T'ai-i Spirit," ts 'e 490, pp. 16--20.
71 Kalinowski, p. 780, points out that this is the only documented pre-Sung dynasty con-
fluence of the nonerian T'ai-i cult and imperial ritual. Also see Cammann, "The
Magic Square of Three," pp. 37-38; the description in the "Explanation of the T'ai-i
Spirit," ts 'e 490, pp. 16-20; the account in the Chiu t 'ang shu [The old T'ang history]
(Peking: Chung-hua Shu-chii, 1975), pp. 922-39; and the "Altars of the Nine Courts,"
in the Tang hui-yao [The essentials of the T'ang], comp. Wang P'u (929-82 A.D.) in
one hundred chiian (Kiangsu shu-chii blockprint ed. of 1884), chiian lOb: 17-23. The
last is a full description.
72 Kalinowski discusses this in detail, and one cannot help but think that its sexual over-
tones were an added attraction to the Vajrayana teachers.
73 Richard K. Payne, "Feeding the Gods: The Shingon Fire Ritual" (Ph.D. diss., Gradu-
ate Theological Union, Berkeley, 1985).