wake of events in Russia (March 1917), the concerns of Schiff and his
friends suggest that the goal of 100 percent Americanism had not been
reached, at least not to the public’s satisfaction. True, most spokesmen for
the Russian immigrants quickly fell into line, and the nonradical Yiddish
and Anglo-Jewish press created the Jewish League of American Patriots, an
organization established to stimulate patriotism and to propagate anti-
German sentiments. But on one issue, the immediate Jewish response to
conscription, Jewish leaders had their own misgivings. Marshall candidly
reported shortly after America declared war: “I have made many inquiries
during the past two weeks on the precise attitude of the Jewish people
going into the service of the country. I find a strong undercurrent of indif-
ference, as well as decided and affirmative opposition in some quarters.”
Schiff, who had always trumpeted the patriotism of the Russian Jews,
agreed privately that many recent immigrants were “slackers” at the start
of the war. Worried no doubt about the consequences of such behavior on
the community as a whole, he went so far as to urge Jewish soldiers to seek
service in the front ranks. The banker blamed the eastern European Zion-
ists in particular. The great majority of them, he charged, resisted con-
scription, and the only way to reach “those people” was through the less
than respectable Yiddish press. Pointing a finger at the Zionists, he called it
their responsibility to prove the compatibility of Jewish nationalism with
true Americanism.^41 Despite his growing sympathy with Zionist principles,
he appeared as the uncompromising defender of a monolithic America.
At the same time, Jewish organizations honed defense strategy. Preven-
tion of negative images, like that of the draft-dodging Jew, took on a dual
function: to prevent dissemination of the ugly stereotypes and to counter
those that had already entered the marketplace. A resolution of loyalty
passed by the AJC pledged the lives and possessions of the members to the
perpetuation of American ideals and institutions. The committee also re-
solved to plan for “the education of the [Jewish] public on the questions
now before the people of the United States in connection with the war.”
While members spoke to Jewish audiences urging registration and compli-
ance with the draft, the AJC published accounts of Jewish loyalty and,
under Louis Marshall’s leadership, kept close count of Jews, replete with
biographies and lists of decorations, who served in the armed forces. Mar-
shall optimistically believed that a statistical follow-up on Jewish service-
men, whose 5 percent in proportion to Jewish numbers contrasted favor-
ably with the 3 percent of the nation at large, would “enable us to laugh...
[at] any question as to the patriotism of the American Jew.” For its part the
Anti-Defamation League formed a special committee to deal with popular
stories, articles, and cartoons depicting Jews as slackers and poor soldiers.
Protection of the Jewish name both before and after it was besmirched be-
came a top priority of the established Jews.^42
202 Jacob H. Schiff