The German-born clinician Franz Joseph Gall
(1758–1828) develops phrenology, soon consid-
ered a pseudoscience.
Franz Anton Mesmer (1733–1815), a graduate
physician of Vienna, demonstrates his theory
of animal magnetism and unwittingly introduces
the use of hypnotic suggestion. He operated the
Magnetic Institute in Paris but lost favor in France.
His theories led to hypnosis as a therapy.
The mesmerist Phineas P. Quimby (1802–1866)
allegedly cures Mary Baker Eddy, who later
founds the Christian Science Church, of long-
standing illness.
James Braid introduces the term hypnotismin 1843.
1858
Bernadette Soubirous is reported to have had a
vision of the Blessed Virgin Mary at Lourdes,
France, since a pilgrimage destination for the faith-
ful who believe the waters there have curative
properties.
1859
Florence Nightingale, the founder of modern nurs-
ing and a major proponent of holistic practice,
writes Notes on Nursing, published in London and
later by Lippincott in the United States.
1861
The French chemist and microbiologist Louis Pas-
teur develops the germ theory of disease, heralding
the birth of modern medicine based on the concept
of infectious disease. Although his contributions
had significant influence in allopathic medicine,
the concept of vaccination and immunization using
like substances added to the body of knowledge
that evolved into homeopathy.
1865
Ivan M. Sechenov, known as the founder of Rus-
sian physiology, writes Reflexes of the Brain, on the
physiological basis of psychic processes.
1873
The German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt, often
called the founder of modern psychology, writes
Physiological Psychology.1874
A. T. Still, of Kansas, founds osteopathy, a system
of medical practice based on the theory that dis-
ease is mainly attributable to dysfunction or loss
of the body’s structural integrity and the dysfunc-
tional parts may be treated by manipulation,
medicine, and surgery.1881
Mary Baker Eddy (1821–1910) founds the Mass-
achusetts Metaphysical College. Eddy, who was
cured of illness by a charismatic healer from
Maine, is also founder of the Christian Science
Church, which espouses the spiritual basis of
disease.1882
The Viennese physician Joseph Breuer uses hypno-
sis to treat hysteria.1892
The German physician Benedict Lust founds the
prototype of the modern health food store.Sir William Osler, an influential Canadian physi-
cian who also practices in the United States and
Great Britain, writes The Principles and Practice of
Medicine, which includes the recommendation that
physicians embrace social concern, compassion,
optimism, generosity, and other desirable qualities
in their practices.1895
Dr. Daniel David Palmer founds chiropractic, a
system of treatment based on Hippocrates’ idea
that disease emanates from dysfunction or sub-
luxations of the spine, which can be adjusted by
hands-on manipulation of the neuroskeleton, and
the concept of the body’s “innate intelligence” to
heal itself.Appendix VI 247