molars are particularly adapted to compressive strength.Since carni-
vores always chew a bone from the end,most such holes are created
in the region of the epiphyses and metaphyses (Brodar 1985:table 3;
Turk and Dirjec 1997) where elastic and viscoelastic trabecular bone is
covered with thin cortical shell or compact bone.This becomes thicker
and thicker with increasing distance from the articular cartilage.
Undoubtedly all puncture depressions are of carnivore origin (Turk,
Dirjec,and Kavur 1997b:figure 11.16),whereas the origin of completely
pierced holes without opposite bite marks,similar to ours,is uncertain.
Everyone agrees that holes in the central part of the diaphysis,where
cortical shell is thickest and where there is no trabecular bone,are
unusual for activities carried out by carnivores.Such a disposition of
holes could be achieved only if the animal were to grasp the bone first
from one end and then from the other,and with at least two powerful
bites (for other details connected with holes made in bones by carni-
vores,see Turk,Dirjec,and Kavur 1997;for an explanation of the cre-
ation of the holes in our bone by teeth,see Albrecht et al.1998,Chase
and Nowell 1998,and d’Errico et al.1998).
The holes in the flute are too big for a wolf,and their shape matches
the shape of wolf’s carnassials not at all and the precarnassials of hyenas
only slightly.Precarnassial and carnassial teeth do not produce circular
holes but oval and rhomboid ones.Almost-circular holes are charac-
teristic only of canines (figure 15.2c,d),where the bite force is half or
less that of precarnassials and carnassials and the teeth behind them.
Besides,canines are not functionally adapted to chewing,which requires
maximum compressive and minimum shear strength,and are normally
not used for this purpose (but see Albrecht et al.1998;d’Errico et al.
1998).Holes in the flute could only match the shape of canines of hyenas
and large carnivores such as bears (brown and cave bear) and lions.
Except for hyenas,these animals are not interested in bones,although
they are present in cave fauna and must be considered.
A force of 1300 to 1900 Newtons is necessary to pierce thick cortical
bone (3 to 4mm) with a pointed tooth in the middle part of the diaph-
ysis of juvenile specimens.^6 It is questionable whether most medium-
sized carnivores (e.g.,wolves,perhaps hyenas) are capable of doing this
with their canines,which in any case would be abnormal chewing behav-
ior (Le Brech et al.1997;Lindner et al.1995).Besides,compact bone
regularly splits longitudinally when a tooth penetrates this deep,as was
the case with the holes in the suspected flute.The ultimate goal of every
bone-eating carnivore is to split a bone into two pieces to get at the
marrow.The question is why this goal was not achieved after so many
attempts,when most of the necessary energy had been invested in pierc-
ing the cortical shell and widening the holes.242 Drago Kunej and Ivan Turk