The Origins of Music: Preface - Preface

lacking appropriate experiments,we do not know whether these trans-

formations involve conscious thought and cognition,with an intent to

change the mental state of others (Cheney and Seyfarth 1992,1996),or

whether they are innate,reflexive,and relatively mindless,and thus quite

unlanguage-like.The term “functional reference”was coined to make it

possible to discuss the issue of reference while remaining agnostic about

the nature of the underlying mental and neural processes.

Food calls of birds and mammals also appear to function referentially,

conveying to others not only that food has been found,but also occa-

sionally giving some inkling,understood by others,as to its quality and

quantity (Dittus 1984; Marler,Dufty, and Pickert 1986; Elowson,

Tannenbaum,and Snowden 1991;Benz,Leger,and French 1992;Benz

1993;Hauser and Marler 1993a,b;Hauser et al.1993;Evans and Marler

1994;reviewed in Hauser 1996).Evidence from birds even suggests

deceptive use of food calls to attract others when in fact no food is

present (Gyger and Marler 1988).

It is thus clear that some animal calls do not conform to the GOP

theory.But although some vocalizations do function symbolically,several

issues remain equivocal.We have only limited information on the role

of experience in the development of this type of communication.Learn-

ing does seem to play some role.Eagle calls by adult vervets are quite

specific,but infants give eagle calls to almost anything moving above in

free space at a certain rate,even a falling leaf;however,they do not give

eagle calls to a snake or a leopard (figure 3.1).Field data gathered by

Seyfarth and Cheney (1980) suggest that the relationship between ref-

erents and call types sharpens with experience,as though only experi-

enced monkeys develop specific predator-related concepts, perhaps

hinting at a role for cognition.However,there are also indications of

34 Peter Marler

Table 3.1

Some calls of birds and mammals that function symbolically

Animal Type of Call Investigator

Red jungle fowl Alarm,food Collias 1987

Chickens Alarm,food Gyger et al. 1987

Evans et al. 1993

Evans and Marler 1994

Lapwings (3 sp) Alarm Walters 1990

Chimpanzees Food Hauser et al. 1993

Rhesus macaques Food Hauser and Marler 1993a,b

Toque macaques Food Dittus 1984

Vervet monkeys Alarm Seyfarth et al.1980a

Ring-tailed lemurs Alarm Macedonia 1990

Malaysian tree squirrels (3 sp) Alarm Tamura and Yong 1993

Alpine marmots Alarm Boero 1992

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