NOTES • 249
ing the “self concept.” A good account of how this concept develops is
given by Damon & Hart (1982). Another approach uses the term “self-
efficacy” (see Bandura 1982). The model of the self developed in these
pages has been influenced by many sources, and is described in Csiks
zentmihalyi (1985a) and Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi (1988).
36 Disorder in consciousness. Psychologists have studied negative emo
tions, such as anger, distress, sadness, fear, shame, contempt, or disgust,
very extensively: Ekman (1972), Frijda (1986), Izard, Kagan, & Zajonc
(1984), and Tomkins (1962). But these investigators generally assume
that each emotion is separately “wired” in the central nervous system
as a response to a specific set of stimuli, instead of being an integrated
response of the self system. Clinical psychologists and psychiatrists are
familiar with “disphoric moods” such as anxiety and depression which
interfere with concentration and normal functioning (Beck 1976, Blum-
berg & Izard 1985, Hamilton 1982, Lewinsohn &. Libet 1972, Seligman
et al. 1984).
39 Order. What order—or psychic negentropy—implies will be discussed
in the pages below; see also Csikszentmihalyi (1982a) and Csikszent
mihalyi Larson (1984). Basically, it refers to the lack of conflict among
the bits of information present in an individual’s consciousness. When
the information is in harmony with a person’s goals, the consciousness
of that person is “ordered.” The same concept applies also to lack of
conflict between individuals, when their goals are in harmony with each
other.
40 Flow. The original research and the theoretical model of the flow expe
rience were first fully reported in Beyond Boredom and Anxiety (Csikszent
mihalyi 1975). Since then a great number of works have used the flow
concept, and extensive new research has been accumulating. A few
examples are Victor Turner’s (1974) application of the concept to an
thropology, Mitchell’s (1983) to sociology, and Crook’s (1980) to evolu
tion. Eckblad (1981), Amabile (1983), and Deci &. Ryan (1985) have
used it in developing motivational theories. For summaries of the vari
ous research findings, see Massimini &. Inghilleri (1986) and Csikszent
mihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi (1988).
“It’s exhilarating. ..” The quote is from Csikszentmihalyi (1975), p.
95.
41 Complexity. Complexity is a function of how well the information in
a person’s consciousness is differentiated and integrated. A complex
person is one who is able to access precise, discrete information, and yet
is able to relate the various pieces to each other; for example, a person
whose desires, emotions, thoughts, values, and actions are strongly in
dividuated yet do not contradict each other. See, for instance, Csikszent-
