EASTWARD HO! 93- Are there cities, towns, or villages of special importance? Are
they fortified? How is the land inhabited? - Money? Is there some standard tender, or are there simply
"moneys," like those of Manicongo [Africa?]? In this regard do
they trade copper as a commodity, and in that case, what things
are made of it? In particular, is it used for casting guns and if so,
what kind? Also in that case, how do they make gunpowder?
A similar questionnaire for Malacca (Malay peninsula) adds a de
tailed question about the Chinese who traded in those parts: vessels
and techniques of navigation? arms and style of war? trade, merchants,
trading posts, merchandise, prices? political power? clothing and man
ners? size and shape of China?^6
These systematic inquiries went back in Portugal at least to 1425,
beginning with the exploration of the Canaries. In 1537, Pedro Nunes,
cosmographer to King Joao III, boasted in recollection: "It is evident
that the discoveries of coasts, islands, continents has not occurred by
chance, but to the contrary, our sailors have departed very well in
formed, provided with instruments and rules of astronomy and geom
etry."^7 The contrast with Spain is marked. The Spanish did not adopt
this methodical approach until the last quarter of the sixteenth century.
Either they did not need it (no competition; simpler navigation), or it
did not accord with their tradition and style. Whereas the Portuguese
sealed claims of possession by asserting discovery, that is, by entering
latitudes on maps, the Spanish asserted material facts. They planted
crosses, "converted" natives, built Christian edifices, installed tribunals
and jails. As for objectives, the Spanish aimed at treasure; the Por
tuguese, at profits from trade. Two views of empire.
The history of European commercial and political expansion into the
Indian Ocean and East Asia is dominated by the question of a might-
have-been. What if the sixteenth century were not a period of Asian po
litical disarray, of war in India between native states and Turcoman
invaders, of Chinese isolationism, a low as it were, exposing Asia to the
ruthless thrusts of these invaders? The Chinese "absence" hurt espe
cially.
From 1405 to 1431, the Chinese undertook at least seven major
naval expeditions to explore the waters of Indonesia and the Indian
Ocean. These voyages aimed to show the Chinese flag, bestow aware
ness and knowledge of the Celestial Kingdom on the barbarians, re
ceive homage and tribute, and collect for the emperor those few rarities