(^34) THE WEALTH AND POVERTY OF NATIONS
sented allegiance of the group or an elite within it and was corre
spondingly limited. To be sure, the tradition of election gave way to
hereditary rule (the Germans were much influenced by Roman exam
ple, or rather principle). But old customs and appearances died hard:
the ruler, even when designated by birth, was nominally elected. So he
was earthly, human rather than divine, and his power the same.
Some did seek to restore the empire that had been. The dream of
Rome reborn never died.^4 Had they succeeded, one might have ex
pected a revival of arbitrary despotism. But such efforts broke down in
the face of poor communication, inadequate transport, challenges to
legitimacy, the contrary power of local rulers, the triumph of reality
over fantasy. In this context, private property was what could be held
and defended. Sometimes it was seized by force, just as today someone
might be mugged and robbed. But the principle never died: property
was a right, and confiscation, no more than plunder, could not change
that.
The concept of property rights went back to biblical times and was
transmitted and transformed by Christian teaching. The Hebrew hos
tility to autocracy, even their own, was formed in Egypt and the desert:
was there ever a more stiff-necked people? Let me cite two examples,
where the response to popular initiative is directly linked to the sanc
tity of possessions. When the priest Korach leads a revolt against Moses
in the desert, Moses defends himself against charges of usurpation by
saying, "I have not taken one ass from them, nor have I wronged any
one of them" (Numbers 16:15). Similarly, when the Israelites, now es
tablished in the Land, call for a king, the prophet Samuel grants their
wish but warns them of the consequences: a king, he tells them, will
not be like him. "Whose ox have I taken, or whose ass have I taken?"
(I Samuel 12:3).
This tradition, which set the Israelites apart from any of the king
doms around and surely did much to earn them the hostility of nearby
rulers—who needs such troublemakers?—tended to get lost in Chris
tianity when that community of faith became a church, especially once
that Church became the official, privileged religion of an autocratic
empire. One cannot well bite the hand that funds. Besides, the word
was not getting out, for the Church early decided that only qualified
people, certain clerics for example, should know the Bible. The Good
Book, with its egalitarian laws and morals, its prophetic rebukes of
power and exaltation of the humble, invited indiscipline among the
faithful and misunderstanding with the secular authorities. Only after
censorship and edulcoration could it be communicated to the laity. So
nora
(Nora)
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