de lettres in Paris in 1888. Durand frequently read from Coppée’s works at “soirées littéraires”
in Cap Haitian in the 1870s, appreciating in Coppée’s poetry the representations of the Parisian
working class which were part of late nineteenth-century popular poetry.^201 Durand dedicates to
Coppée his 1891 poem “Contraste” a series of short poems which contrasts the idyllic warmth of
the Haitian countryside to the cold and industrious French capital and in which he reveals
solidarity with the French laborers. Above all else, it important to specify that the use of the
term Parnassian is very broad in the Haitian context, used to denote poetry which is no longer
entirely personal or overtly political. Naomi Garrett, in The Renaissance of Haitian poetry, also
cites Durand and concurs with Dash that Parnassian influence in Haitian poetry is most visible in
the descriptive presentations of rural scenes or natural settings.^202 I generally concur with their
understanding of the term, but find that its usefulness is more aptly appreciated in light of
historical context and in consideration of rural cultural practices.
3.4 NATURE
Given the uncertainties of chronology and complexities of literary trends in Durand’scorpus, the best means to access such a diverse project is through its dominant themes. Even this
organization, however, will not be completely cohesive, since many of the themes overlap in
various poems and one poem may lend itself to multiple themes. Returning once more to
Herder’s theories of nature and national culture may help to explain the importance Durand
(^201) Le Vigilant le 15 avril 1829.
(^202) Naomi Garrett, The Renaissance of Haitian Poetry (Paris: Présence africaine, 1963) 42.